Neurological System & Special Senses
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| Neurotransmitters | show 🗑
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| neurons | show 🗑
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| show | a junction between two nerve cells, consisting of a minute gap across which impulses pass by diffusion of a neurotransmitter.
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| show | System composed of the brain and spinal cord
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| show | consists of cordlike nerves that link the central nervous system with the rest of the body
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| show | structurally and functionally support and protect neurons. Out number neurons 10 to 1. Not directly involved in the transmission of information or impulses through the nervous system. Support cells.
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| show | is the bulbous, non-process portion of a neuron or other brain cell type, containing the cell nucleus.`
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| show | receives stimuli, or impulses, from other neurons and conduct this stimulation to the cell body. (afferent processes). Can be modified into sensory receptors that receive/sense: heat, cold, touch, pressure, stretch from inside or outside the body
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| show | conduct nerve impulses away from the cell body toward another neuron or an effector cell (a cell that does something when stimulated, such as a muscle or gland cell). Efferent processes. Can be very long.
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| show | bundles of axons that make up cordlike nerves in the body
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| myelin | show 🗑
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| show | appearing darker: nervous tissue that is made up largely of neuron cell bodies
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| show | myelin sheath made of the cell membranes of specialized glial cells in the brain and spinal cord
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| show | myelin sheath made of the cell membranes of specialized glial cells in the outside the brain and spinal cord (peripheral nervous system)
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| show | small gaps in the myelin sheath between adjacent glial cells enhance the speed of conduction of nerve impulses along the axon
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| How do basic communication and control functions differ between the nervous system and the endocrine system? | show 🗑
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| show | They outnumber neurons about 10 to 1 but are not directly involved in the transmission of information or impulses through the nervous system. They are important parts of the infrastructure necessary for the neurons to do their jobs.
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| show | They have three distinct parts, including a cell body, axon, and dendrites. These parts help them to send and receive chemical and electrical signals.
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| show | Dendrites receive electrochemical impulses from other neurons, and carry them inwards and towards the soma. Axons carry the impulses away from the soma. Most neurons have a lot of dendrites and only have one axon (can be long).
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| What is the difference between gray matter and white matter? | show 🗑
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| show | Myelinated axons have unmyelinated gaps between the numerous myelin sheaths surrounding the myelinated axon. Gaps are called Nodes of Ranvier. A change in voltage across the plasma membrane of an unmyelinated portion of axon is called an action potential.
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| What are the anatomic differences between the CNS and the PNS? | show 🗑
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| show | Neurons that receive information from our sensory organs (eye, skin) and transmit input to the central nervous system: afferent neurons. Neurons that send impulses from the central nervous system to your limbs and organs: efferent neurons.
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| Define autonomic and somatic nervous systems. | show 🗑
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| Sensory vs Motor | show 🗑
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| show | usually called afferent nerve fibers
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| motor nerve fibers | show 🗑
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| show | Part of the PNS. Major functions: include voluntary movement of the muscles and organs and reflex movements. In the process of voluntary movement, sensory neurons carry impulses to the brain and the spinal cord.
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| show | A control system that acts largely unconsciously and regulates bodily functions such as the heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary response, urination, and sexual arousal.
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| Resting State of a neuron | show 🗑
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| show | Found in many plasma membranes. Powered by ATP, it moves sodium and potassium ions in opposite directions, each against its concentration gradient. A single cycle of the pump = three sodium ions extruded and two potassium ions imported
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| show | The resting membrane potential is determined by the uneven distribution of ions (charged particles) between the inside and the outside of the cell, and by the different permeability of the membrane to different types of ions. Potassium: Sodium:
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| depolarization | show 🗑
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| action potential | show 🗑
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| repolarization | show 🗑
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| threshold stimulus | show 🗑
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| show | Occurs in the four chambers of the heart: both atria and then both ventricles. The sinoatrial (SA) node on the wall of the right atrium initiates depolarization in the right and left atria, causing contraction: symbolized by the P wave on an ECG.
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| show | the passive spread of depolarization to the adjacent distal region of membrane slightly depolarizes the new region, causing opening of a few voltage-gated Na+ channels and an increase in Na+ influx. At its peak.
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| show | a signal transmitted along a nerve fiber. It consists of a wave of electrical depolarization that reverses the potential difference across the nerve cell membranes.
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| all-or-nothing-principle | show 🗑
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| refractory period | show 🗑
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| saltatory conduction | show 🗑
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| synaptic transmission | show 🗑
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| synaptic cleft (synaptic gap) | show 🗑
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| show | a neuron (nerve cell) that fires the neurotransmitter as a result of an action potential entering its axon terminal. In both the central and peripheral nervous systems in mammals, presynaptic terminals operate mostly in the same way.
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| neurotransmitter | show 🗑
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| postsynaptic neuron | show 🗑
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| show | the specialized presynaptic terminal at the end of an axon. Contain necessary organelles, proteins and molecules needed to transmit chemical/electrical information to the postsynaptic cell.
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| show | Contains synaptic vesicles which are filled with a neurotransmitter substance. When a nerve impulse travels down the axon and reaches the end bulb the neurotransmitter is released into a small space (synaptic cleft)
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| show | After depolarization, it undergoes one final change in internal charge. After depolarization, the open voltage-gated sodium ion channels close again. The increased positive charge within the cell causes the potassium channels to open.
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| During repolarization, what ion channels open and what ion moves? Where does it move? | show 🗑
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| show | Sodium-potassium pumps move two potassium ions inside the cell as three sodium ions are pumped out to maintain the negatively-charged membrane inside the cell; this helps maintain the resting potential.
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| What is threshold? What role does threshold play in the all-or-none principle? | show 🗑
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| What is the difference between the absolute and the relative refractory periods? | show 🗑
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| Explain why waves of depolarization are conducted faster in myelinated axons than in unmyelinated ones., | show 🗑
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| show | protein molecules inside the target cell or on its surface that receive a chemical signal. Chemical signals are released by signaling cells in the form of small, usually volatile or soluble molecules
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| show | types of neurotransmitters have excitatory effects on the neuron. They increase the likelihood that the neuron will fire an action potential. Some of the major ones include epinephrine and norepinephrine.
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| inhibitory neurotransmitters | show 🗑
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| show | A neurotransmitter which is a chemical released by a nerve cell or neuron. Acetylcholine causes muscles to contract, activates pain responses, and regulates endocrine and REM sleep functions. Deficiencies can lead to muscle weakness.
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| acetylcholinesterase | show 🗑
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| monoamine oxidase (MAO) | show 🗑
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| catechol-o-methyltransferase | show 🗑
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| show | Depolarization waves causes the vesicles to dump neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. Neurotransmitter diffuse across the synaptic cleft toward the postsynaptic membrane. Receptors on the postsynaptic membrane bind the neurotransmitters.
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| show | Neurotransmitter molecules released by the synaptic knob bind with receptors and trigger
a change in the postsynaptic cell. If not a match they will not bind. No change will occur.
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| show | Excitatory have an excitatory effect on the postsynaptic membrane when
they combine with their specific receptors. Inhibitory tend to make the inside of the cell more negative instead of positive: move the charge farther away from threshold.
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| show | Acetylcholine: neurotransmitter broken down quickly by acetylcholinesterase found on the postsynaptic membrane.
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| show | Catecholamines are the neurotransmitters norepinephrine, epinephrine, and dopamine.
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| show | Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glycine are inhibitory neurotransmitters. GABA is
found in the brain, and glycine is found in the spinal cord.
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| Gray Matter (of the CNS) | show 🗑
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| White Matter | show 🗑
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| show | Made up of gray matter in the cerebral cortex (outermost layer) and white matter beneath the cortex, including the corpus callosum (a set of fibers that connect the two halves of the cerebral cortex.) (learning, reason, intelligence)(largest portion)
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| Cerebellum | show 🗑
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| show | (Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Pituitary) The between brain. Serves as a nervous system passageway between the primitive brainstem and the cerebrum.
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| Brainstem (more primitive) | show 🗑
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| gyri | show 🗑
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| lobes | show 🗑
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| show | a groove or furrow, especially one on the surface of the brain.
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| longitudinal fissure | show 🗑
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| Thalamus | show 🗑
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| Hypothalamus | show 🗑
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| Pituitary | show 🗑
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| What part of the brain is responsible for conscious thought and perception of sensations? | show 🗑
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| show | The folds, called gyri (plural of gyrus), are separated by deep grooves called fissures, and the more shallow grooves are called sulci (plural of sulcus).
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| show | The cerebellum is located behind the brain stem. The frontal lobe controls movement but the cerebellum “fine-tunes” this movement. This area of the brain is responsible for fine motor movement, balance, and the brain's ability to determine limb position.
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| What part of the brain serves as a relay station for impulses going to and from the cerebrum? | show 🗑
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| show | Brainstem. But the medulla oblongata control many functions of the digestive, cardiovascular, pulmonary, reproductive and urinary systems. The vagus nerve (both sensory and motor fibers) supplies sensory input to these centers through its afferent fibers.
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| Meninges | show 🗑
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| cerebrospinal fluid | show 🗑
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| blood-brain barrier | show 🗑
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| fenestrations | show 🗑
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| myelogram | show 🗑
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| What are the protective membranes that surround, support, and protect the CNS? | show 🗑
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| show | Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, colorless body fluid found in the brain and spinal cord.
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| show | BBB is semipermeable; allows some materials to cross but prevents others. In the brain, endothelial cells fit tightly together and substances cannot pass out of the bloodstream. Molecules like glucose are transported out of the blood by special methods.
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| What are the 12 cranial nerves? Which nerves are motor, which are sensory, and which are both? | show 🗑
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| show | is a long, thin, tubular structure made up of nervous tissue, which extends from the medulla oblongata in the brainstem to the lumbar region of the vertebral column. It encloses the central canal of the spinal cord, which contains cerebrospinal fluid.
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| show | one of two "roots" which emerge from the spinal cord. It emerges directly from the spinal cord, and travels to the dorsal root ganglion. Transmits sensory information, forming the afferent sensory root of a spinal nerve.
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| ventral nerve roots | show 🗑
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| dorsal horns | show 🗑
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| show | contains the cell bodies of motor neurons that send axons via the ventral roots of the spinal nerves to terminate on striated muscles. These pathways are also referred to as the cortico-spinal tracts.
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| show | is part of the autonomic nervous system (ANS). This nervous system activates what is often termed the fight or flight response.
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| show | is one of three divisions of the autonomic nervous system. It conserves energy as it slows the heart rate, increases intestinal and gland activity, and relaxes sphincter muscles in the gastrointestinal tract. (Rest and Digest)
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| show | sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system influences the various organ systems of the body through connections emerging from the thoracic and upper lumbar spinal cord.
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| cranial-sacral system | show 🗑
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| show | is a cluster of nerve cell bodies (a ganglion) in the autonomic nervous system. The two types are sympathetic ganglion and parasympathetic ganglion.
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| show | originates in the brainstem or the spinal cord, and the second set, called ganglion cells or postganglionic neurons, lies outside the central nervous system in collections of nerve cells called autonomic ganglia
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| postganglionic neuron | show 🗑
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| show | The bilaterally symmetric sympathetic chain ganglia, also called the paravertebral ganglia, are located just ventral and lateral to the spinal cord. The chain extends from the upper neck down to the coccyx, forming the unpaired coccygeal ganglion.
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| cranial nerve nucleus | show 🗑
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| sympathetic nervous system (nerve locations) | show 🗑
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| show | emerges from the brain and the sacral vertebral regions and therefore is called the cranial-sacral system
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| show | a nerve cell which mainly uses the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) to send its messages. Many neurological systems are cholinergic.
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| cholinergic receptors | show 🗑
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| show | are receptor polypeptides that respond to the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Nicotinic receptors also respond to drugs as the agonist nicotine. These receptors are considered cholinergic receptors, since they respond to acetylcholine.
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| muscarinic receptors | show 🗑
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| show | are one of the two types of reflex arcs, and specifically involve the skeletal muscles. They are unlearned muscle reflexes that are mediated by the brainstem and spinal cord.
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| autonomic reflexes | show 🗑
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| show | In vertebrates, most sensory neurons do not pass directly into the brain, but synapse in the spinal cord. This allows for faster reflex actions to occur by activating spinal motor neurons without the delay of routing signals through the brain.
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| sensory neuron | show 🗑
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| show | a muscle contraction in response to stretching within the muscle. It is a monosynaptic reflex which provides automatic regulation of skeletal muscle length. When a muscle lengthens, the muscle spindle is stretched and its nerve activity increases.
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| show | is a spinal reflex intended to protect the body from damaging stimuli. It is a polysynaptic reflex, causing stimulation of sensory, association, and motor neurons
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| extensor reflex | show 🗑
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| muscle spindle | show 🗑
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| palpebral reflex | show 🗑
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| show | Normally when a light is shone into one eye it will cause both pupils to constrict.
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