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ANTH 1001
Exam 2 Chapters: 13, 5, 6
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Acclimation | when an individual organism experiences a change in its phenotype in response to an environmental stressor |
| adaptation | when a population experiences a change in its genotype in response to an environmental stressor |
| variation | Differences in biology, physiology, body chemistry, behavior, and culture. By measuring these differences, we understand the degrees of variation between individuals, groups, populations, or species. |
| race | The identification of a group based on a perceived distinctiveness that makes that group more similar to each other than they are to others outside the group. |
| scientific racism | The use of scientific methods to justify hierarchical racial categories (Examples: Anthropometry, Phrenology) |
| biological determinism | the theory that human behavior and characteristics are determined by genetics, and not by environmental factors |
| eugenics | selective breeding of human populations for desirable or attractive traits |
| Bergmann's rule | animals are larger and thicker in colder climates |
| Allen's rule | animals have shorter, thicker appendages such as ears, tails, and limbs, in colder climates |
| population | the study of groups of people or animals that live in the same area, including how they interact with each other and their environment |
| speciation | evolutionary process that bridges the scales of micro and macro evolution, is not an event but a process |
| microevolution | Changes in the frequency of a gene or allele in an interbreeding population. |
| macroevolution | Large and often-complex changes in biological populations, such as species formation. |
| adaptive radiation | relatively rapid expansion and diversification of life forms into new ecological niches |
| ecological niches | The role of a species in its environment; how it meets its needs for food, shelter, etc. |
| species | A group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals capable of exchanging genes or interbreeding. The species is the principal natural taxonomic unit, ranking below a genus and denoted by a Latin binomial (e.g., Homo sapiens). |
| biological species concept | species = a group of interbreeding organisms, connected through gene flow, speciation occurs through reproductive isolation |
| ecological species concept | reproductive isolation not necessary, natural selection keeps species distinct from one another, relies on the concept that hybrids have less fitness |
| allopatric speciation | Speciation caused by long-term isolation (physical separation) of subgroups of the population |
| parapatric speciation | no geographic barrier, partial spatial isolation or separation, reproductive isolation is maintained due to behavioral or morphological traits that reduce gene flow, hybrid zones may arise |
| sympatric speciation | When a population splits into two or more separate species while remaining located together without a physical (or cultural) barrier. |
| hybridization | the blending of cultural elements from different groups to create new cultural form |
| homology | traits shared due to common ancestry |
| homoplasy | traits shared due to convergent evolution |
| phlogenetics | a newer form of classification than the traditional Linnaean classification system. The idea behind modern phylogeny is to record organisms in such a way that each one has a place indicated by evidence of common ancestry through evolution |
| convergent evolution | Evolutionary process whereby organisms that are not closely related independently evolve similar traits as a product of adaptation to similar evolutionary parameters. |
| evolutionary trees | visual representations of this branching pattern of evolution |
| phylogenetic trees | a diagram that represents evolutionary relationships among organisms, reflects how species or other groups evolved from a series of common ancestors |
| unique derived trait | features that have evolved in specific lineages and are not present in their ancestral forms |
| shared derived trait | a specific characteristic that is shared by a group of organisms and evolved within that group, a trait that distinguishes a particular group from their ancestors and other related groups. |
| shared ancestral trait | Traits that are common to a broader group of organisms and originated outside of that specific group |
| outgroup | a distantly related organism that serves as a reference group to determine the evolutionary relationships between a set of species |
| cladistics | the organization of animals into specific categories based on their shared and divergent physical characteristics |
| evolutionary trends | patterns of change in human evolution over time focuses on morphology, physiology, genetics, ecology, behavior, and cognition of humans and non-human primates, as viewed from an evolutionary perspective |
| opposable thumb | Having thumbs and toes that go in a different direction from the rest of the fingers, allows for grasping with hands and feet |
| orbital convergence | he degree to which the orbital margins face in the same direction, degree to which the eye sockets face forward |
| postorbital bar | A bony ring that surrounds the eye socket, open at the back |
| trichromatic | being able to see color |
| sexual swellings | Area of the hindquarters that change in size, shape, and often color over the course of a female’s reproductive cycle, reaching maximum size at ovulation. Occurs in many primate species that live in Africa and Asia |
| life history | Refers to an organism’s pace of growth, reproduction, lifespan, etc. |
| grades | A grouping based on overall similarity in lifestyle, appearance, and behavior. |
| clades | A grouping based on ancestral relationships; a branch of the evolutionary tree. |
| rhinarium | Wet noses; resulting from naked skin of the nose which connects to the upper lip and smell-sensitive structures along the roof of the mouth |
| suspensory climbing | a form of arboreal locomotion or a feeding behavior that involves hanging or suspension of the body below or among tree branches |
| prehensile tail | A tail that is able to hold the full body weight of an organism, which often has a tactile pad on the underside of the tip for improved grip. |
| folivores | Having a diet consisting primarily of leaves. |
| frugivores | Having a diet consisting primarily of fruit. |
| gummivores | Having a diet consisting primarily of gums and saps. |
| granivores | having a diet consisting primarily of grain and seeds |
| brachiators | a type of primate mostly from the family Hylobatidae, which includes gibbons |
| clambering | to climb up, across, or into somewhere with difficulty, using the hands and the feet |
| knuckle-walking | A form of quadrupedal movement used by Gorilla and Pan when on the ground, wherein the front limbs are supported on the knuckles of the hands |
| Wrangham's socioecological model | a framework for the evolution of primate social and mating systems from a behavioral ecology perspective |
| social system | A way of describing the typical number of males and females of all age classes that live together |
| Wrangham's resource defense model | food access, more eyes looking for resources, better able to defend resources, benefit of living in a group |
| Van Shaik's predation defense model | decreased predation, more eyes and ear to detect predators, geometry of the selfish herd, mob deterrence, benefit of living in a group |
| mating system | A way of describing which male(s) and female(s) mate |
| polyandry | A mating system in which multiple males mate with a single breeding female. |
| monogamy | A mating system in which one male mates with one female |
| polygyny | A mating system in which one male mates with multiple females |
| polygynandry | A mating system in which multiple males mate with multiple females |
| sexual dimorphism | When males and females of a species have different morphological traits. |
| comparative anatomy | Georges-Louis Leclerc’s technique of comparing similar anatomical structures across different species. |
| positional repertoire | how an organism moves and holds their body while resting. This includes the form(s) of locomotion for the species, as its resting positions, feeding positions, and any other body postures |
| narrow positional repertoire | one main mode of efficient locomotion |
| morphology | the shape of an organism’s bones |
| broad positional repertoire | having more than one mode of locomotion |
| bone | a living tissue with many functions in the body, protect vital organs and support other tissues |
| cranial capacity | an approximate measurement of brain volume |
| foramen magnum | the large hole for the spinal cord at the bottom of the skull (centrally placed) in humans and towards the back (posteriorly placed) on the skulls of quadrupeds. |
| sagittal | A vertical section; down the midline of the body, dividing the body into left and right halves. |
| coronal | A vertical section; perpendicular to the sagittal plane, dividing it into anterior and posterior (front and back). |
| transverse | A cross section; dividing the body into upper (superior) and lower (inferior). |
| cranial | Describing the bones of the skull, including the mandible. |
| postcranial | Describing the bones beneath the cranium. |
| lateral | Toward the side of the body, away from the midline. |
| medial | Toward the midline (or middle) of the body (e.g. the eyes are medial to the ears). |
| proximal | Closer to the trunk of the body. |
| distal | Away from the trunk of the body (e.g. the fingers are distal to the wrist). |
| anterior | In bipeds, toward the front of the body. In quadrupeds, toward the skull. |
| posterior | In bipeds, toward the rear of the body. In quadrupeds, toward the tail. |
| ventral | In bipeds, toward the chest/belly (anterior is more commonly used). In quadrupeds, toward the lower surface or chest/belly. |
| dorsal | In bipeds, toward the back (posterior is more commonly used). In quadrupeds, toward the upper surface or back. |
| superior | In bipeds, toward the head. In quadrupeds, toward the back, similar to dorsal. |
| inferior | In bipeds, towards the feet. In quadrupeds, towards the chest, similar to ventral. |
| humerus | The proximal bone of the upper / front limb articulated to the scapula |
| femur | he proximal bone of the lower / hind limb, articulated to the innominate, patella, tibia |
| innominate | The bones of the pelvis / hips, articulated to the sacrum, pubis, femur |
| scapula | The shoulder blade, articulated at the clavicle, humerus |
| cranium | The upper of portion of the skull |
| mandible | The lower of portion of the skull / the jaw bone |
| tibia | The larger bone comprising the distal lower / hind limb |
| radius and ulna | The two long bones that make up the distal part of the upper / front limb. |
| postorbital wall | orbits that are fully enclosed so that the eye is fully protected by bone |
| orbital convergence | when primates have forward facing eyes on the front of their face which allows for stereoscopic vision |
| forward facing eyes | eyes that are closer together on the front of the face |
| tooth comb | Some primates have elongated lower anterior dentition (incisors and canines) that is used for feeding and grooming |
| bilophodont molars | some primates have particular molar cusp configuration, molars have two cusps on each side of the tooth connected by ridges, called lophs, that run perpendicular to the tooth row |
| tympanic tube | derived condition is to have a bony tube on the underside of the skull between the auditory meatus and the bulla |
| pronograde | primates that hold their vertebral column horizontally and are always quadrupedal |
| orthograde | Primates that hold their vertebral column slightly more vertically and can practice quadrupedalism or bipedalism |
| node | The points where branches split off from the main trunk, or from other branches |
| last common ancestor (LCA) | Each node represents the point at which a population of interbreeding individuals diverged into two (or more) species |
| cladogram | a kind of phylogenetic tree — is a branching diagram that depicts the evolutionary relationships within a lineage |
| clade | a branch on the tree of life: a group of organisms consisting of an ancestor and all its descendants |
| sister taxa | 2 things that are more closely related to each other than they are to any other taxa. |
| primate behavioral biology | s a field of study that examines primate behavior in an evolutionary context |
| primatologists | People who study primates |
| lab studies | provide the advantage of more controlled conditions, and greater ease in conducting experiments |
| field studies | provide fewer opportunities for controlled observation and experimentation, but are particularly interesting from an evolutionary perspective, animals confront the challenges that they face, finding food, shelter, water, mates while avoiding predators |
| ecology | examines how primates adapt to their environment and how those adaptations affect society |
| ethogram | a list of behaviors of a particular species. |
| activity budget | the amount of time an animal devotes to different behaviors. |
| state | a behavior in which an animal is engaged in for an appreciable period of time, such as feeding, resting, moving, grooming (using hands and/or teeth to clean another individual’s hair and/or skin) or being groomed |
| event | something that happens nearly instantaneously, such as mating, attacking, or giving a particular vocalization, such as a pant-hoot |
| Ad Libitum Sampling | at one's pleasure, the observer records as much information as possible, writing down whatever seems interesting or important |
| Focal Sampling | provides unbiased rates of behavior, is a behavioral sample in which the researcher follows and records the behavior of a single individual for a predetermined amount of time |
| focal follow | a behavioral sample in which the researcher follows and records the behavior of a single individual, the focal subject |
| focal subject | target animal for focal follow sample |
| continuous sampling | Both states and events can be recorded using continuous sampling. for the duration of the focal follow, the observer keeps a continuous record of the focal subject’s behavior, and records all occurrences of the behaviors the researcher is interested in |
| point sampling | States such as feeding, moving and grooming at instantaneous times. the observer records the subject’s behavior at predetermined intervals, such as once every minute. The observer watches the focal subject and records behavior at predetermined intervals |
| scan sampling | a method for recording the behavior of multiple individuals. During a ------ sample, the observer watches a group of animals, and at predetermined time intervals, records the behavior of each individual in that group at that instant |
| inter-observer reliability | the extent to which two or more observers are observing and recording behavior in the same way |
| percentage agreement | measures of interobserver agreement or “reliability” have traditionally been used to summarize observer agreement from studies using interval recording, time-sampling, and trial-scoring data collection procedures |
| fission-fusion | Societies in which group composition is flexible, such as chimpanzee and spider monkey societies. Individuals may break up into smaller feeding groups (fission) and combine into larger groups (fusion). |
| shared derived traits | If the derived trait is restricted multiple members of the group, it is called a |
| unique derived trait | If the derived trait is restricted to only one member of the group, it is called a |
| derived traits | in contrast occur when only a subset of group members possess that trait. |
| canines | In most primates, these are the longest of the teeth, often conical in shape and used as a weapon against predators or others of their species. |
| dental formation | The number of each type of tooth in one quadrant of the mouth, written as number of incisors: canines: premolars: molars. |
| incisors | The spatula-shaped teeth at the front of the mouth. |
| molars | The largest teeth at the back of the mouth; used for chewing. In primates, these teeth usually have between three and five cusps. |
| pre- molars | Smaller than the molars, used for chewing. In primates, these teeth usually have one or two cusps. |
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