Help
Options
Didn't know it?
click below
click below
Knew it?
click below
click below
Don't Know
Remaining cards (0)
Know
retry
shuffle
restart
0:00
Embed Code - If you would like this activity on your web page, copy the script below and paste it into your web page.
Normal Size Small Size show me how
Normal Size Small Size show me how
BVSc1
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What are the different levels of organization of an organism | System, Organ, Tissue, Cell, Molecule, Atom |
| What is the relationship between structure and function in the body | The structure of body parts is designed specifically for their function, ensuring efficient processes with minimal energy and resources. |
| What is a gradient | A gradient describes the differences in concentration, pressure, temperature, etc., between two areas. |
| List examples of types of gradients that drive processes in the body. | Concentration gradients, Pressure gradients, Temperature gradients. |
| What are the similarities between negative and positive feedback loops | Both help maintain homeostasis and involve a sensor, control center, and effector. |
| What are the differences between negative and positive feedback loops | Negative feedback opposes changes to maintain stability, while positive feedback enhances changes until a process is completed. |
| How do negative and positive feedback loops maintain homeostasis | Negative feedback counteracts changes, and positive feedback amplifies changes until a desired outcome is reached. |
| How do cells communicate with each other | Cells communicate through electrical signals or chemical messengers (neurotransmitters, hormones, etc.). |
| What is the basic structure and function of the cell membrane | The membrane is made of a phospholipid bilayer with hydrophilic heads, hydrophobic tails, proteins for transport, and cholesterol for fluidity. |
| What is the process of diffusion | Diffusion is the movement of molecules from high to low concentration without energy or protein carriers. |
| Examples of substances that use diffusion to cross cell membranes. | Oxygen, Carbon dioxide, Nitrogen, Water, Lipids, Steroid hormones. |
| What is active transport | Active transport moves molecules from low to high concentration and requires energy (e.g., sodium-potassium pump). |
| What is osmosis | Osmosis is the movement of water from an area of high water concentration to low water concentration. |
| What is osmolarity | Osmolarity is the number of solute particles per liter of solvent. |
| When does osmosis occur | Osmosis occurs when there is a difference in solute concentrations across a membrane. |
| What is the difference between isotonic, hypotonic, and hypertonic solutions | Isotonic: same concentration; Hypotonic: lower concentration; Hypertonic: higher concentration. |
| What happens when a semipermeable membrane is placed between two solutions with different osmolarities | Water moves to balance concentrations, causing cells to swell (hypotonic), stay the same (isotonic), or shrink (hypertonic). |
| Describe the dorsal, transverse, sagittal, and median body planes. | Dorsal: parallel to the back; Transverse: perpendicular to body axis; Sagittal: divides body into right and left; Median: divides body into equal left and right halves. |
| What are the basic directional terms used to describe body parts | Dorsal, Ventral, Cranial, Caudal, Rostral, Medial, Lateral, Proximal, Distal, Superficial, Deep. |
| What are the main body regions of animals | Head, Neck, Trunk (thorax, abdomen, pelvis), Forelimbs, Hindlimbs. |
| What are the main body cavities of mammals | Thoracic, Abdominal, Pelvic. |
| What are the body cavities of birds and reptiles | Dorsal cavity (cranial and spinal), Ventral cavity (thoracic and abdominopelvic). |
| How are the four tissue types different from each other | They differ by the cells that form them and the type/amount of extracellular matrix. |
| What is the basic structure and function of different types of epithelium | Simple squamous, cuboidal, columnar, pseudostratified, stratified squamous — all involved in protection, absorption, secretion, and diffusion. |
| What are tight junctions, gap junctions, and desmosomes | Tight junctions seal cells together, gap junctions allow communication between cells, and desmosomes anchor cells together for strength. |
| What is the difference between exocrine and endocrine glands | Exocrine glands secrete into ducts, while endocrine glands release hormones into the bloodstream. |
| What are the two main parts of connective tissue | Extracellular matrix (fibers and ground substance) and resident cells (fibroblasts, adipocytes, etc.). |
| What is the difference between loose and dense connective tissue | Loose tissue provides support and has open spaces; dense tissue is tougher and provides strength and flexibility. |
| What are the different types of specialized connective tissue | Cartilage (elastic, fibrocartilage, hyaline), Bone, Blood. |
| How can chemicals be used to communicate messages between cells | Ligands are molecules released by signaling cells, which travel through extracellular fluid to bind to specific receptors on target cells, triggering a cascade of reactions and cellular responses. |
| What are the similarities and differences between hormones, paracrine factors, and neurotransmitters | Hormones: Chemical signals that travel through the bloodstream. Paracrine factors: Chemical signals acting on nearby cells. Neurotransmitters: Cellular messengers made by nerve cells, affecting nearby neurons or muscles to trigger electrical signals. |
| Why do some ligands bind to membrane receptors while others bind to intracellular receptors | Water-soluble ligands bind to membrane receptors as they can't cross the cell membrane. Lipid-soluble ligands bind to intracellular receptors because they can pass through the membrane. |
| How does the binding of a ligand to a receptor lead to a change in the cell | Binding causes a conformational change in the receptor, activating signaling pathways. Water-soluble ligands trigger cascades inside the cell via second messengers, while lipid-soluble ligands regulate gene transcription inside the nucleus. |
| Why might every cell encounter a chemical signal, but not all cells respond to it | Only cells with specific receptors for a ligand can respond. The receptor type, number, and sensitivity influence whether a cell responds to a signal. |
| What are the similarities and differences between agonists and antagonists | Agonists activate receptors, mimicking endogenous ligands. Antagonists block receptors, preventing the endogenous ligand from binding or altering receptor function. |
| What are the similarities and differences between endogenous and exogenous ligands | Endogenous ligands are naturally produced by the body and activate receptors. Exogenous ligands are external substances that can mimic or block the effects of endogenous ligands. |
| What are the cells and carriers involved in electrical signaling | Axons: Carry signals away from the cell body to other cells. Cell body (Soma): Contains organelles and integrates incoming signals. Dendrites: Receive signals and convey them to the cell body. |
| What is resting membrane potential | Resting membrane potential is the electrical potential difference across the cell membrane when a neuron or muscle cell is at rest, not actively transmitting signals. |
| How do gradients (electrical and concentration) relate to electrical signaling | Electrical gradients create membrane potentials, while concentration gradients drive ion flow across the membrane, contributing to depolarization and action potentials. |
| What are the different types of ion channels important in electrical signaling | Leak channels: Always open, allowing ion flow. Ligand-gated channels: Open in response to chemical signals. Voltage-gated channels: Open in response to changes in membrane potential. |
| What happens during an action potential | Resting state: Cell is negatively charged, ion channels are closed. Depolarization: Na+ enters the cell, causing a positive charge. Repolarization: K+ exits the cell, restoring the negative charge. |
| Why can action potentials cause different responses | Action potentials occur when a stimulus surpasses a threshold. Stronger stimuli lead to more frequent action potentials, while weaker stimuli result in fewer. |
| How can action potentials grow along a cell membrane | Action potentials propagate by depolarizing adjacent regions, opening voltage-gated Na+ channels and creating a wave of depolarization along the axon. |
| What is the difference between an absolute and relative refractory period | In the absolute refractory period, no second action potential can be initiated. In the relative refractory period, a stronger-than-normal stimulus can trigger a response. |
| What are the similarities and differences between action potential propagation in unmyelinated and myelinated axons | Unmyelinated axons propagate signals slowly via continuous conduction, while myelinated axons use saltatory conduction, speeding up signal transmission. |
| How can electrical signals move from cell to cell | Electrical signals move via synaptic transmission or electrical coupling. Synaptic transmission involves neurotransmitter release and receptor binding, while electrical coupling involves ions flowing through gap junctions, enabling rapid signal propagatio |
| What are the main functions of skin | Thermoregulation, gathers sensory information, protects the body from UV radiation, provides resistance to trauma and bacteria, synthesises vitamin D3 for bone health, scent glands in the skin can be used for communication |
| What are the two layers of the skin and the hypodermis | Outermost epidermis and deeper dermis beneath the epidermis |
| What is the structure of the epidermis | The epidermis is made up of several layers of keratinocytes (skin cells) that form stratified squamous epithelium, producing keratin. As cells dry out and die, they move toward the surface, forming a tough outer layer to protect the skin and prevent water |
| What is the structure of the dermis | The dermis is a tough connective tissue layer beneath the epidermis, providing strength, elasticity, and support. It contains collagen fibers, ground substance for nutrient exchange, fibroblasts that make collagen and elastin, blood vessels for nutrient a |
| What is the structure and function of sebaceous glands | Sebaceous glands are exocrine glands located in the dermis, with ducts opening into hair follicles. They secrete sebum, an oily substance that keeps the skin moist, soft, and forms a barrier against foreign substances. Some animals use specialized sebaceo |
| What is the structure and function of sweat glands in animals | Sweat glands in animals are found in the dermis and can be either eccrine or apocrine. Eccrine glands open into pores on the skin's surface, while apocrine glands open into hair follicles. Sweat glands help with thermoregulation by releasing sweat that ev |
| What is the structure and function of hair | Hair is a keratinized structure produced by hair follicles embedded in the skin. The hair shaft is made up of three layers: the cuticle, cortex, and medulla. The hair root includes the follicle, bulb, and dermal papilla. Hair protects the skin from physic |
| What is the structure feathers | Feathers are unique to birds and consist of a central shaft with blood vessels during development, becoming hollow as they mature. The shaft has barbs and barbules that interlock to form a barrier. Feathers can serve different functions depending on their |
| What is the function of feathers | Flight, provide insulation, trap body heat, protect the skin, camouflage, courtship |
| What are the footpads of dogs and cats | Footpads are thick, tough pads located on the bottom of a dog's or cat's paws, protecting inner tissues from injury. They provide traction and shock absorption, especially during running or jumping, and contain sensory nerves that help the animal navigate |
| What is the structure of footpads of dogs and cats | Dogs and cats have seven pads on each forepaw: five digital pads (covering each distal interphalangeal joint), the metacarpal pad (covering the phalangeal-metacarpal joint), and the carpal/stop pad (distal to the carpal bones). The hind paw has four digit |
| What are the main structures of a horse's hoof | Coronary Band: Fleshy band at the top of the hoof. Hoof Wall: Outer, visible part of the hoof. Sole: Soft, concave part of the hoof that covers the underside. Frog: V-shaped structure in the center of the sole. Bars: Ridges connecting the hoof wall to the |
| What are the layers of the hoof wall | Outer layer: A thin, hard layer that protects the hoof from daily wear. Middle layer: The bulk of the hoof wall, providing strength and durability. Inner layer: Interlocks with sensitive laminae of the underlying bone for support and shock absorption. |
| What are the similarities and differences between the hooves of horses and ruminants | Both horses and ruminants have keratinized hooves that protect soft tissues and support weight. Horses have a single, large hoof per foot with a well-defined wall, sole, and frog. Ruminants have two separate hooves on each foot, and their hooves are more |
| What is the structure and function of claws | Claws are modified keratinized epidermal structures that cover the distal phalanx of each digit. They consist of the coronary band, claw wall, sole, and quick. Claws protect the tissue of the digits, provide grip and traction, and are used for digging, cl |
| What are the similarities and differences between the epidermis of reptiles and mammals | Both reptiles and mammals have an epidermis that provides a protective barrier. They both contain keratin and sensory receptors. Reptiles, however, shed their outer skin layer through moulting and have a tougher epidermis, especially in species with scale |
| What is the structure and function of the beak | The beak is a bony structure covered by a keratin sheath, consisting of the upper (maxilla) and lower (mandible) beak. It serves various functions, including feeding, preening, communication (e.g., courtship and territorial defense), nest-building, defens |
| Why is it recommended that horned animals are debudded after a developed horn is removed | Debudding is less painful for the animal when done at the horn bud stage because it is less invasive and causes fewer complications. Dehorning can cause significant pain, as well as a high risk of infection and bleeding, making debudding a more humane and |
| What are the similarities and differences between horns and antlers | Both horns and antlers are used for defense, dominance displays, and mating rituals. Antlers are made of bone and are shed and regrown annually, typically branched, and are usually found in males. Horns, however, are made of a keratin sheath over a bony c |
| Why are membranes important to protect the body | Membranes protect the body by preventing harmful organisms or foreign substances from entering, controlling the movement of substances, lining internal organs and cavities for protection from damage and infection, secreting substances (e.g., mucus and dig |
| How is the structure of mucous membranes related to their function | Mucous membranes are epithelial tissues that line organs and cavities exposed to the external environment. They provide a protective barrier, secrete mucus, and facilitate absorption and secretion. The type of epithelium varies depending on the function: |
| How is the structure of serous membranes related to their function | Serous membranes are composed of simple squamous epithelium supported by connective tissue, secreting serous fluid. This fluid lubricates organs, reducing friction and allowing smooth movement within cavities. |
| What is the difference between visceral and parietal serous membrane layers | The visceral serous membrane layer covers and attaches directly to the organs, while the parietal serous membrane layer lines the walls of body cavities. |
| What are bones and bone tissues made up of | Bone tissues are connective tissues that support and protect other tissues and organs. Bones are made of osteoblasts (build bone), osteoclasts (break down bone), and osteocytes (maintain bone). |
| What do bones and bone tissues do | Bones support body weight, protect vital organs, enable movement with muscles, store minerals (calcium, phosphorus), and produce blood cells. |
| What are the similarities and differences between compact and trabecular bone | Both are made of collagen and inorganic components. Compact bone is dense and solid, found on the outer layer. Trabecular bone is porous, lighter, and found inside the bone. Compact bone resists bending, while trabecular bone resists multi-directional for |
| What are the main regions and structures of a long bone | Regions: diaphysis (shaft), epiphysis (ends), metaphysis (connects diaphysis and epiphysis). Structures: periosteum (outer covering), articular cartilage (joint surface), compact bone (dense outer layer), trabecular bone (inner layer), medullary cavity (y |
| What are the steps of bone formation by endochondral ossification | 1. Cartilage model forms. 2. Cartilage calcifies. 3. Blood vessels bring osteoblasts and osteoclasts. 4. Osteoblasts replace cartilage with bone. 5. Osteoclasts form the medullary cavity. 6. Bone develops in epiphyses. 7. Cartilage remains in growth plate |
| What do growth plates do in long bones | Growth plates allow bones to lengthen by adding new cartilage, which is later replaced by bone. |
| What factors influence bone remodelling | Mechanical stress, hormones, calcium, and vitamin D. |
| How can bones be used as a storage site for calcium | Bones store calcium as hydroxyapatite and release it into the bloodstream when needed to maintain blood calcium levels. |
| What do parathyroid hormones and calcitonin do in calcium homeostasis | Parathyroid hormones raise blood calcium by stimulating osteoclasts and increasing calcium absorption. Calcitonin lowers blood calcium by stimulating osteoblasts and decreasing osteoclast activity. |
| Classify joints according to their structure, and list examples | Fibrous Joints: no space, limited movement (e.g., skull sutures) - Cartilaginous Joints: no space, limited movement (e.g., vertebrae) - Synovial Joints: space with synovial fluid, free movement (e.g., limb joints). |
| What are the structural elements of synovial joints | Articular cartilage (cushions bones), joint capsule (stabilizes), synovial fluid (lubricates), ligaments (connects bones), menisci (shock absorption). |
| What movements are possible with different types of synovial joints | Flexion (decreases angle), extension (increases angle), rotation (around axis), abduction (away from body), adduction (toward body), circumduction (circular motion), gliding (sliding surfaces). |
| Classify synovial joints based on the movements they permit | Plane Joints: gliding (e.g., carpal bones) - Hinge Joints: flexion/extension (e.g., elbow) - Pivot Joints: rotation (e.g., neck) - Condyloid Joints: flexion/extension, abduction/adduction (e.g., knuckles) - Ball-and-Socket Joints: all directions (e.g., sh |
| What terms are used to describe bones | Tuberosity (rounded prominence), trochanter (large projection), tubercle (small projection), condyle (rounded surface), epicondyle (raised area), facet (flat surface), fossa (depression), foramen (hole), trochlea (grooved surface). |
| What are the parts of the axial skeleton | Skull, vertebrae, ribs, sternum, hyoid bone, mandible. |
| What are the bones of the skull | Temporal bone (forehead and roof), tympanic bullae (middle ear), external acoustic meatus (ear canal), parietal bone (lateral walls), frontal bone (forehead), occipital bone (base), sphenoid bone (floor), zygomatic bone (cheek), lacrimal bone (tear ducts) |
| How are the cranial and nasal cavities separated | The ethmoid bone separates them, with the cribriform plate forming the roof of the nasal cavity. |
| Where is the hard palate | Located at the roof of the mouth, formed by the incisive bone, maxilla, and palatine bone. |
| What are the parts of the mandible | Mandibular symphysis, body, ramus, condylar process, coronoid process, angular process. |
| What is the difference between dolichocephalic, mesocephalic, and brachycephalic breeds in dogs | Dolichocephalic: long, narrow head; mesocephalic: average head shape; brachycephalic: short, rounded head. |
| What are the regions of the vertebral column | Cervical (neck), thoracic (chest), lumbar (lower back), sacral (pelvic), caudal (tail). |
| What are the parts of the vertebra and intervertebral disc | Vertebrae: body (weight-bearing), vertebral arch (spinal cord enclosure), spinous process (posterior projection), transverse processes (lateral projections), articular processes (joint formation). Intervertebral discs: annulus fibrosus (outer ring), nucle |
| What does the structure of the ribcage look like | The ribcage protects vital organs. It consists of bone and cartilage. Ribs are connected dorsally to the spine and ventrally to the sternum via costal cartilage. |
| How does the ribcage connect to the spine and sternum | Ribs connect to the thoracic vertebrae (dorsal) and to the sternum (ventral). |
| Where is the body, head, and tubercle of a rib | The body is the curved part. The head connects to the spine, and the tubercle connects to the transverse processes of the vertebrae. |
| Where are the costal cartilages, costochondral junctions, and intercostal spaces | Costal cartilages connect ribs to the sternum. Costochondral junction is where bone meets cartilage. Intercostal spaces are the gaps between ribs. |
| What are the key features of the scapula | The scapula has the spine (ridge), dorsal border (edge), acromion (projection), and glenoid fossa (shoulder joint). |
| What are the main features of the humerus | The humerus has the head (ball), greater tubercle (muscle attachment), condyle (articulation), and epicondyles (projections). |
| How can you identify the radius and ulna | The radius is the main weight-bearing bone in the forearm, while the ulna is larger and located medially. |
| What are the notable features of the ulna | The ulna features the olecranon (elbow), trochlear notch (articulation), anconeal process (projection), and coronoid processes (articulation). |
| What is the basic composition of the elbow joint | The elbow joint is a hinge joint made up of the humerus, radius, and ulna. |
| How can you identify the carpal bones and associated joints in dogs and cats | The carpal bones are located in the wrist and consist of multiple small bones that form the carpal joint. |
| How can you identify the metacarpal bones, digits, and associated joints in dogs and cats | The metacarpals form the palm, while the digits are the individual toes. |
| What are the bones of the pelvis, and what landmarks are important | The pelvis includes the ilium, ischium, and pubis. Key landmarks: ischial tuberosity (sitting bone), wing of the ilium (upper portion), and obturator foramina (holes for nerves). |
| What are the joints of the pelvis | The pelvis has the pubic symphysis (between pubic bones) and sacroiliac joints (between sacrum and ilium). |
| What are the key landmarks of the femur | The femur has the head (ball), greater trochanter (muscle attachment), medial and lateral condyles (knee articulation), and trochlea (groove for patella). |
| How can you identify the tibia and fibula | The tibia is the larger, weight-bearing bone of the lower leg, while the fibula is smaller and located laterally. |
| What are the components and functions of the stifle joint | The stifle joint consists of the femur, tibia, patella, and associated ligaments. It functions to allow the leg to bend and straighten. |
| What are the bones of the tarsus and associated joints | The tarsus includes the tibia, fibula, and tarsal bones. The joint between these bones allows for flexion and extension of the foot. |
| What are the main functions of muscle tissue | Muscle tissue moves body parts, maintains posture, adjusts the volume of hollow structures, moves substances, and produces heat. |
| What are the similarities and differences between skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle | Skeletal Muscle: Voluntary, striated, quick contractions, fatigues. Smooth Muscle: Involuntary, non-striated, slow contractions, doesn't fatigue. Cardiac Muscle: Involuntary, striated, quick contractions, doesn't fatigue. |
| What are the components of a skeletal muscle fibre | Sarcolemma (membrane), sarcoplasm (cytoplasm), myofibrils (filaments), sarcomeres (basic unit), sarcoplasmic reticulum (stores Ca2+), T-tubules (signal conduction), mitochondria (ATP production), myoglobin (oxygen storage). |
| What is the structure and function of a sarcomere | Sarcomeres contain thick (myosin) and thin (actin) filaments. Their function is to shorten and cause muscle contraction. |
| How is an electrical signal conveyed to a skeletal muscle fibre | Nerve signals release ACh, causing an action potential in the sarcolemma, which triggers calcium release and muscle contraction. |
| How can an action potential lead to muscle contraction | The action potential releases calcium, which enables actin and myosin to form cross-bridges, shortening the sarcomere, leading to contraction. |
| What are the differences between twitches and complete tetanus | Twitches are brief contractions from a single action potential. Complete tetanus is a prolonged contraction from rapid stimuli. Incomplete tetanus is partial relaxation between contractions. |
| How can skeletal muscle contraction lead to body movement | Muscle contraction pulls the insertion towards the origin, causing body movement. |
| How are tendons protected from wear and tear | Tendons are protected by tendon sheaths (lubrication), bursae (shock absorption), and sesamoid bones (friction reduction). |
| What are the muscles of mastication | Digastricus, masseter, temporalis, medial and lateral pterygoids. |
| What are the muscles of the eye in a dog | Four rectus muscles (dorsal, ventral, medial, lateral), two oblique muscles (dorsal, ventral), retractor bulbi. |
| What other muscles are found in the head region | Muscles of the tongue, pharynx, larynx, soft palate, and facial expression. |
| What are the muscles of the trunk and diaphragm landmarks | Trunk: Epaxial, hypaxial, intercostals, abdominal muscles (rectus abdominis, obliques).Diaphragm landmarks: Aortic hiatus, caval foramen, oesophageal hiatus, tendinous centre, sternum, crus. |
| What are the extrinsic and intrinsic muscles of the forelimb | Extrinsic: Trapezius, pectorals, latissimus dorsi, brachiocephalicus. Intrinsic: Triceps brachii, biceps brachii, carpal and digital extensors/flexors. |
| What are the main muscles of the hindlimbs | Thigh: Iliopsoas, gluteals, hamstrings, quadriceps, adductors. Distal Hindlimb: Gastrocnemius, tibialis cranialis. |
| What is muscle tone | Muscle tone is the constant low-level contraction that keeps muscles firm even at rest. |
| How can fibre length and motor units affect muscle contractions | Optimal sarcomere length maximizes cross-bridge formation for stronger contractions. More motor units recruited lead to stronger muscle contractions. |
| How does exercise improve muscle power and endurance | Exercise increases muscle fibre size, improving strength and endurance. Inactivity causes muscle atrophy and reduces power. |
| What are the three main methods a muscle can make ATP | Aerobic metabolism, anaerobic glycolysis (glucose → pyruvate → ATP), resynthesis from creatine phosphate (ATP regeneration from creatine phosphate). |
| What is muscle fatigue | Muscle fatigue occurs when muscles can't maintain force due to insufficient oxygen, phosphate buildup, or mental exhaustion. |
| What are the similarities and differences between skeletal and smooth muscle structure and function | Skeletal Muscle: Striated, voluntary, fast contractions. Smooth Muscle: Non-striated, involuntary, slow contractions, doesn't fatigue. |
| How does skeletal vs. smooth muscle contraction differ | Skeletal Muscle: Relies on sarcoplasmic reticulum for calcium. Smooth Muscle: Uses both sarcoplasmic reticulum and extracellular calcium, and is more energy-efficient for sustained contractions. |
| What are the three main activities of the nervous system that are used to receive and communicate information | Sensation, Integration, Reaction |
| What are the similarities and differences between the basic structure and function of the CNS and PNS | CNS: (Brain & spinal cord, integrates information), PNS (Nerves & sensory receptors, transmits information) |
| How does the structure of each part of a neuron relate to its function | Cell body: Maintains health & metabolic processes, Dendrites: Receive signals, increase surface area for connections, Axon: Transmits action potentials over long distances |
| What are the sites of signal integration and transmission in the CNS and PNS | CNS (Gray matter, spinal cord, nuclei, brain nuclei) PNS (Ganglia) |
| What are the types of supporting cells found in the CNS, and their functions | Astrocytes, Microglia, Oligodendrocytes, Ependymal cells |
| How is the CNS and PNS physically protected | CNS (Skull, vertebral column, CSF, meninges) PNS (Connective tissue layers around nerves (endoneurium, perineurium, epineurium)) |
| How is the CNS protected from chemical disruption | Blood-brain barrier (BBB), Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) |
| What are the structures and functions of the major regions of the CNS | Cerebrum, Cerebellum, Diencephalon, Brainstem, Spinal Cord |
| What are the similarities and differences between the somatic and autonomic divisions of the PNS | , SNS: Voluntary, skeletal muscles, ANS: Involuntary, cardiac/smooth muscles & glands |
| What are the similarities and differences between the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches of the ANS | Sympathetic: "Fight or flight", norepinephrine, Parasympathetic: "Rest and digest", acetylcholine |
| How do the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems work together to regulate the activities of the body | Work together to maintain homeostasis |
| How is the adrenal medulla innervated | Sympathetic neurons, acetylcholine, adrenaline, and norepinephrine release |
| What are the twelve cranial nerves and their basic functions | Olfactory, Optic, Oculomotor, Trochlear, Trigeminal, Abducens, Facial, Vestibulocochlear, Glossopharyngeal, Vagus, Accessory, Hypoglossal |
| How do sensory and motor neurons form from a spinal nerve | Sensory neurons enter through the dorsal root, motor neurons exit via the ventral root |
| What is the brachial plexus and lumbosacral plexus | Brachial plexus: Controls forelimbs, Lumbosacral plexus: Controls hindlimbs |
| How is the forelimb innnervated | Innervated by the brachial plexus |
| How are autonomous skin zones useful in clinical practices | Autonomous skin zones help diagnose nerve injuries |
| Where are the femoral and sciatic nerves in the dog | Femoral: Quadriceps, stifle extensors, Sciatic: Lateral thigh, hip extensors, stifle flexors |
| What are the nerves responsible for normal bowel and bladder function | Pelvic Nerve (Urination, defecation), Pudendal Nerve (Voluntary sphincter control) |
| What is the difference between sense and sensation | Sensing: Detection of a stimulus by sensory receptors (not necessarily conscious). Sensation: The conscious perception of the detected stimulus. |
| What are the general sequence of events that are needed to produce a sensation | Sensory receptor detects a change, stimulus is converted to an electrical signal, signal is transmitted via neurons to the brain, brain processes the signal and forms a conscious perception. |
| What is the concept of adaptation | Sensory adaptation occurs when the brain stops responding to constant stimuli, allowing focus on new and more important stimuli. |
| List and give examples of types of somatic receptors. | Tactile receptors: Touch and pressure. Proprioceptors: Body position and movement. Thermoreceptors: Temperature. Nociceptors: Pain. Pruriceptors: Itch. |
| What are the similarities and differences between nociception and pain | Nociception: Detection of harmful stimuli, automatic, no conscious awareness. Pain: Conscious feeling of discomfort, subjective, influenced by psychological factors. |
| What is the nociceptive pathway | Nociceptors detect harmful stimuli, signals are transmitted by A-delta and C fibers, signals enter spinal cord, synapse with second-order neurons, signals travel to brainstem, thalamus, and cortex for perception. |
| What are the similarities and differences between pain and pruritus | Pain: Immediate withdrawal reflex, doesn't adapt, processed in the brain. Pruritus: Scratching reflex, doesn't adapt, processed in the brain. |
| What are the structures that protect the eye from damage | Orbit, eyelids, eyelashes, nictitating membrane, lacrimal glands, conjunctiva, extra-ocular muscles, cornea. |
| What tissue layers form the structure of the eye and what are their functions | Fibrous Tunic: Sclera & cornea, structural support. Vascular Tunic: Choroid, ciliary body, iris, nutrient supply, pupil control, lens focusing. Nervous Tunic: Retina, macula, optic nerve, light detection & transmission. |
| What can you see when you examine a retina with an ophthalmoscope | Fundus (retina, optic disc, blood vessels), tapetal and non-tapetal regions. |
| What is the function of the lens | Focuses light on the retina by bending incoming light, adjusts shape for near and far focus. |
| What are the functions of the fluids within the eye | Aqueous Humour: Maintains intraocular pressure, nutrient transport. Vitreous Humour: Transmits light, stabilizes eye, supports retina. |
| What is the process of forming and perceiving a visual image | Light enters through cornea & pupil, focused by lens, transduced by retina, electrical signals travel via optic nerve to brain for perception. |
| How do the structures in each part of the ear contribute to hearing and equilibrium | External Ear: Collects and focuses sound waves. Middle Ear: Converts sound waves into mechanical vibrations. Inner Ear: Converts vibrations to electrical signals for hearing and balance. |
| What is the passage of sound waves to the sensory receptors of the inner ear | Sound waves are detected by sensory receptors, converted/transduced into electrical signals, transmitted to cerebral cortex, integrated into consciousness by auditory cortex. |
| How do sound waves that are detected by hearing receptors result in the perception of sound | Sound waves enter ear, vibrate tympanic membrane, vibrations are transmitted through ossicles to oval window, fluid movement in cochlea creates a traveling wave, hair cells detect wave and generate electrical signals, signals travel to brainstem and audit |
| How does the vestibular system receptors detect changes in head position | Receptors in otolith organs and semicircular canals detect head movement through fluid and gel movement that bends hair cells, generating signals processed by the brain. |
| How is balance maintained when the head changes positions | Balance is maintained by detecting head movements through vestibular system, integrating this information with visual and proprioceptive inputs, and adjusting eye movements and posture for stability. |
| How are chemicals in the air perceived as smell | Odorants are inhaled, bind to olfactory receptors on sensory neurons, triggering electrical signals that travel through the olfactory nerve to the olfactory bulb and cortex, where the brain interprets the smell. |
| How are chemicals in food perceived as taste | Taste receptor cells in taste buds detect chemicals in food, triggering electrical signals that travel to the brain for taste perception. |
| What is the relationship between taste and smell | Taste detects basic flavors, while smell enhances flavor by adding aroma, contributing to the overall perception of food's flavor. |
| What pathway does blood follow from the lungs to the tissues and back | A: Lungs → Pulmonary capillaries → Left atrium → Left ventricle → Systemic arteries → Systemic capillaries → Systemic veins → Right atrium → Right ventricle → Pulmonary arteries → Pulmonary capillaries. |
| What forces are responsible for moving blood through the heart | A: Blood moves through the heart via pressure gradients, created either by increased blood volume in a chamber or by the contraction of muscle around a chamber. |
| What are the components that make up blood and plasma | A: Blood is made up of plasma, platelets, leukocytes (white blood cells), and erythrocytes (red blood cells). Plasma contains albumin, globulins, and fibrinogen. |
| What distinguishes plasma from serum | A: Plasma contains fibrinogen, while serum does not. |
| What are the different types of leukocytes and their basic functions | A: Neutrophils (colorless, engulf bacteria), eosinophils (pink, defend against parasites), basophils (blue/purple, involved in allergic responses), monocytes (large, destroy microorganisms), and lymphocytes (defend against external and internal threats). |
| How does the structure of red blood cells facilitate their function | A: Red blood cells have a biconcave shape, no nucleus, and a flexible membrane, increasing surface area for oxygen transport and allowing them to pass through capillaries easily. |
| How are the components of red blood cells recycled | Red blood cells are broken down in the spleen, liver, and bone marrow. Hemoglobin is recycled, with iron reused for new RBCs, and heme converted to bilirubin and excreted. |
| What is the structure and function of platelets | A: Platelets are small, disc-shaped cell fragments without a nucleus. They form plugs at injury sites to stop bleeding and release chemicals for clotting and tissue repair. |
| What is the difference between lymphoid and myeloid stem cell products | A: Lymphoid stem cells produce lymphocytes, which target specific pathogens. Myeloid stem cells produce RBCs, granulocytes, monocytes, and platelets, which perform general immune functions and blood clotting. |
| Where is the heart located in the body | A: The heart is in the thoracic cavity, slightly to the left of the midline, behind the sternum and above the diaphragm, protected by the ribcage and surrounded by the pericardium. |
| What are the layers of the heart wall and pericardium, and what are their functions | A: The heart wall consists of the epicardium (outer layer, protective), myocardium (middle layer, responsible for contractions), and endocardium (inner layer, smooth to prevent blood clots). The pericardium has a fibrous layer (protection) and a serous la |
| What are the similarities and differences between skeletal and cardiac muscle in terms of calcium and contraction strength | A: Both require calcium for contraction. In skeletal muscle, calcium is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, and stronger contractions occur by recruiting more fibers. In cardiac muscle, calcium comes from both the sarcoplasmic reticulum and outside |
| Why is the longer duration of action potential in cardiac muscle important | A: It prevents tetany (sustained contractions) and ensures the heart has time to relax and fill with blood between beats, allowing for coordinated contractions. |
| How do pressure gradients and valves regulate blood flow through the heart | A: Pressure gradients direct blood flow from higher to lower pressure areas, and valves ensure that blood flows in one direction, preventing backflow. |
| How is the heart supplied with blood | A: The heart receives blood through the coronary arteries, which branch off the aorta and surround the heart. The blood drains through coronary veins into the coronary sinus, which returns it to the right atrium. |
| What are the events in the cardiac cycle during atrial systole, ventricular systole, and complete diastole | A: Atrial systole: Atrioventricular valves are open, atria contract to push blood into ventricles. Ventricular systole: Semilunar valves open, ventricles contract to push blood into arteries. Complete diastole: AV valves open, semilunar valves close, hear |
| What structures make up the cardiac conduction system | A: The sinoatrial (SA) node, atrioventricular (AV) node, Bundle of His, bundle branches, and Purkinje fibers transmit electrical impulses that coordinate heartbeats. |
| Why is the sinoatrial (SA) node considered the pacemaker of the heart | A: The SA node fires the fastest and initiates electrical impulses, setting the pace for the entire heart. |
| How do the events on an electrocardiogram (ECG) correlate with the cardiac cycle | A: The P wave represents atrial depolarization, the QRS complex represents ventricular depolarization, and the T wave represents ventricular repolarization. |
| What is cardiac output, and how is it calculated | A: Cardiac output is the volume of blood pumped per minute by the left ventricle and is calculated as heart rate × stroke volume (CO = HR × SV). |
| How do the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems affect heart rate, stroke volume, and cardiac output | A: The sympathetic system increases heart rate and contraction strength, raising stroke volume and cardiac output. The parasympathetic system decreases heart rate but has minimal effect on stroke volume. |
| What is the relationship between end-diastolic volume, cardiac muscle fiber length, and stroke volume | A: The more the ventricles fill (higher end-diastolic volume), the greater the stretch of the cardiac muscle fibers (preload), leading to a higher stroke volume. |
| What is self and non-self in relation to an animal's body | Self refers to the body's own substances, non-self refers to foreign substances. |
| How are the lymphatic and immune systems connected structurally and functionally | The lymphatic system transports and stores immune cells, aiding the immune system's defense against pathogens. |
| What is the function of granulocytes in the immune system | Granulocytes perform phagocytosis, fight parasites, and participate in inflammation and allergic reactions. |
| What role do lymphocytes play in adaptive immunity | Lymphocytes help target, neutralize, and remember specific pathogens. |
| What is the function of monocytes in the immune system | Monocytes become macrophages and dendritic cells, which engulf pathogens and present antigens. |
| What are the key differences between the cardiovascular and lymphatic systems | The cardiovascular system is a closed loop driven by the heart, while the lymphatic system is open and relies on muscle contractions. |
| What are the functions of lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, and bone marrow | Lymph nodes filter lymph, the thymus matures T cells, the spleen filters blood, and bone marrow produces blood cells. |
| How do surface barriers contribute to immunity | Surface barriers like skin and mucous membranes block pathogens from entering the body. |
| What are the roles of phagocytic cells, plasma proteins, and innate immune responses in innate immunity | Phagocytic cells engulf pathogens, plasma proteins eliminate them, and innate immune responses trigger inflammation and fever. |
| What is the process of innate immunity | Innate immunity responds quickly to foreign substances with inflammation, immune cell recruitment, and pathogen elimination. |
| How does adaptive immunity differ from innate immunity | Adaptive immunity is slower, specific, and creates memory, while innate immunity is rapid and non-specific. |
| How do innate and adaptive immunity work together | Innate immunity contains infections and signals adaptive immunity, which produces targeted responses and memory cells. |
| What is antigen presentation in adaptive immunity | Antigen presentation is when dendritic cells and macrophages display pathogens to T cells for a targeted immune response. |
| How do T cells and B cells interact during adaptive immunity | T cells activate B cells, which produce antibodies to neutralize pathogens. |
| What happens after an infection in adaptive immunity | Some B and T cells become memory cells, allowing for a quicker response if the same pathogen returns. |
| What are the five steps that result in oxygen delivery to the body cells and the removal of carbon dioxide | Pulmonary ventilation, pulmonary gas exchange, gas transport, tissue gas exchange, cellular respiration. |
| What is the pathway through which air travels during inspiration and expiration | Inspiration: Nasal cavity → Pharynx → Larynx → Trachea → Bronchi → Bronchioles → Alveoli; Expiration: Alveoli → Bronchioles → Bronchi → Trachea → Larynx → Pharynx → Nasal cavity. |
| What is the difference between the conducting and respiratory zones of the respiratory tract | Conducting zones transport air; respiratory zones are where gas exchange occurs. |
| What is the relationship between the pleura and the lungs | The pleura covers the lungs and produces pleural fluid to lubricate and maintain lung inflation. |
| How do changes in thoracic volume alter pressure in the lungs | Increased thoracic volume decreases lung pressure (inhalation), decreased volume increases lung pressure (exhalation). |
| How do changes in thoracic volume result in airflow | Increased volume lowers lung pressure, causing air to flow in; decreased volume increases lung pressure, causing air to flow out. |
| How is the volume of the thorax altered during inspiration and expiration | Inspiration: Volume increases; expiration: Volume decreases. |
| What are the similarities and differences between laminar and turbulent airflow | Laminar airflow is smooth with low resistance; turbulent airflow is disorganized with high resistance. |
| How does resistance alter airflow | Increased resistance decreases airflow, while decreased resistance increases airflow. |
| What does tidal volume, minute ventilation, and alveolar ventilation mean | Tidal volume: Air moved per cycle; minute ventilation: Air moved per minute; alveolar ventilation: Air reaching alveoli per minute. |
| Why is slow, deep breathing more effective than rapid, shallow breathing | Slow, deep breathing allows more air to reach the alveoli, improving gas exchange. |
| What are the O2 and CO2 pressure gradients and net gas movements in pulmonary and tissue gas exchange | O2 moves from alveoli to blood; CO2 moves from blood to alveoli in pulmonary gas exchange. In tissue gas exchange, O2 moves from blood to tissues, CO2 from tissues to blood. |
| How is O2 in the blood transported to body cells | Oxygen binds to hemoglobin in the blood, which carries it to tissues where it is released. |
| What are the three methods used to carry CO2 in blood | CO2 is carried as bicarbonate (70%), bound to hemoglobin (20%), and dissolved in plasma (10%). |
| Why does blood CO2 concentration alter blood pH | High CO2 levels increase H+ ions, lowering pH (acidosis); low CO2 levels decrease H+ ions, raising pH (alkalosis). |
| How is breathing controlled | The brainstem, through chemoreceptors detecting CO2, O2, and pH levels, controls the rate and depth of breathing. |
| What are the factors that cause the rate and depth of breathing to change | CO2 concentration, O2 concentration, and blood pH affect the rate and depth of breathing. |
| How does the anatomy of the respiratory tract help to prevent foreign material from reaching the alveoli | Nasal cavity turbulence, mucociliary escalator, and alveolar macrophages all protect the lungs. |
| What is the mechanism of coughing and its function | Coughing clears irritants from the airways by creating a rapid, forceful airflow. |
| What is the function of sneezing | Sneezing clears irritants from the nose and regulates moisture. |
| What is reverse sneezing | Reverse sneezing involves rapid, forceful inhalations to clear irritants, especially in brachycephalic breeds. |
| What are the major organs of the digestive system | Liver, Gallbladder, Pancreas, Small intestine, Caecum, Colon, Rectum, Salivary glands, Stomach. |
| How do the digestive systems of herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores differ in structure and function | - Herbivores: Large caecum and multi-chambered stomach for fermenting fibrous material. - Carnivores: Shorter intestines and a single-chambered stomach for breaking down protein and fat. - Omnivores: Moderate intestines and stomach for digesting both plan |
| How are fatty acids processed by the liver | Fatty acids are either sent to other tissues, made into triglycerides (lipogenesis) for storage, converted into cholesterol, partially metabolized into ketone bodies, or completely metabolized into ATP by hepatocytes. |
| How are proteins/amino acids processed by the liver | Proteins are broken down into amino acids. These are converted into sugars or fats for energy or storage, used to make clotting factors, converted into urea, or used to make albumin. |
| How is glucose processed by the liver in the fed state | Excess glucose is converted into glycogen for quick access (glycogenesis), remaining glucose is converted into triglycerides for long-term storage, and nutrients are used for essential functions and tissue repair. |
| How is glucose processed by the liver in the fasting state | Glycogen is converted into glucose (glycogenolysis), and free fatty acids are converted into ketone bodies for energy, particularly for the brain. |
| What are the other metabolic roles of the liver | The liver is involved in detoxification (ammonia, some hormones), synthesis (hepatic proteins, bile acids, clotting factors), and storage (excess carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, iron, and copper). |
| How can animals limit heat loss in cold conditions | Animals can limit heat loss by using insulation (fur, feathers, blubber), vasoconstriction, shivering, huddling, seeking shelter, and piloerection via the arrector pilli muscle. |
| How can animals maximize heat loss in hot conditions | Animals maximize heat loss by sweating, vasodilation, panting, seeking shade or burrowing, wetting their body with saliva, exposing skin with little hair, or bathing in water or mud. |
| What is the difference between the endocrine and exocrine functions of the pancreas | Exocrine function involves secreting digestive juices into ducts that empty into the small intestine, while endocrine function involves synthesizing and secreting hormones directly into the blood. |
| What are the similarities and differences between insulin and glucagon | Insulin is released by beta cells of the pancreas in the fed state, while glucagon is released by alpha cells in the fasting state. Both hormones regulate blood glucose levels but have opposing effects. |
| How is insulin regulated | Insulin is released when there is an increase in glucose and amino acid levels. It promotes the storage of glucose as glycogen, glucose uptake in muscles, and lipogenesis in adipose tissue. It is inhibited by low blood glucose and hormones like epinephrin |
| How is glucagon regulated | Glucagon is released in response to low blood glucose levels, stress, or sympathetic nervous system activation, and is inhibited by high blood glucose and insulin. |
| What are the similarities and differences between the effects of insulin and glucagon | Insulin lowers blood glucose by promoting glucose uptake and storage, while glucagon increases blood glucose by stimulating glycogen breakdown, glucose synthesis, and ketone body production. |
| How are the hypothalamus and pituitary glands connected | The hypothalamus produces releasing/inhibiting hormones that the anterior pituitary gland responds to, while the posterior pituitary gland stores the hormones that the hypothalamus produces. |
| How does the hypothalamus work with the anterior pituitary | The hypothalamus secretes releasing/inhibiting hormones into the bloodstream, which travel to the anterior pituitary, prompting it to release various hormones like TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH, GH, and PRL. |
| How does the hypothalamus work with the posterior pituitary | The hypothalamus produces oxytocin and ADH, which are transported to the posterior pituitary where they are stored and released into the bloodstream when needed. |
| Where is antidiuretic hormone (ADH) made and what does it do | ADH is produced by the hypothalamus and stored in the posterior pituitary. It prevents excessive water loss by promoting water retention by the kidneys. |
| Where is oxytocin made and what does it do | Oxytocin is produced in the hypothalamus and stored in the posterior pituitary. It stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth and milk release during breastfeeding. |
| What are the key structural differences between the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary, and posterior pituitary | The hypothalamus is made of neural tissue, the anterior pituitary is made of epithelial tissue, and the posterior pituitary is made of neural tissue. |
| What are the key functional differences between the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary, and posterior pituitary | The hypothalamus monitors body conditions, the anterior pituitary releases trophic hormones to regulate other glands, and the posterior pituitary releases stored hormones like ADH and oxytocin. |
| What are the five major classes of hormones produced by the anterior pituitary | Gonadotropins, prolactin, ACTH, TSH, and growth hormone. |
| What is the difference between releasing hormones and trophic hormones | Releasing hormones are produced by neural tissue and regulate the release of trophic hormones from the anterior pituitary, while trophic hormones stimulate target glands to produce hormones or promote growth. |
| What is the general pattern of feedback control of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis | The hypothalamus releases hormones to the anterior pituitary, which releases trophic hormones to stimulate secretory glands, whose hormones provide feedback to the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary. |
| What hormones are produced by the adrenal medulla | The adrenal medulla produces adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine). |
| How are adrenaline and noradrenaline regulated | They are regulated by the sympathetic nervous system in response to stress or danger. |
| What are the families of hormones produced by the adrenal cortex | Androgens, mineralocorticoids, and glucocorticoids. |
| What do glucocorticoids do | Glucocorticoids increase blood glucose, stimulate gluconeogenesis, promote ketogenesis, suppress inflammation, and inhibit the immune system. |
| How are glucocorticoids regulated | They are released in response to stress, trauma, or starvation. ACTH stimulates their production, and they provide negative feedback to inhibit further ACTH release. |
| Where are thyroid and parathyroid hormones made | Thyroid hormone is produced in the thyroid gland, while parathyroid hormone is produced in the parathyroid glands. |
| How is thyroid hormone regulated | The hypothalamus releases TRH, which stimulates the anterior pituitary to release TSH, prompting the thyroid gland to release thyroid hormones (T3 and T4). |
| How is parathyroid hormone regulated | It is regulated by low calcium levels, stimulating the parathyroid to release parathyroid hormone to increase calcium availability. |
| What does thyroid hormone do | It increases metabolism, fat breakdown, oxygen consumption, and heart rate, while decreasing calcium concentrations in the body. |
| What does parathyroid hormone do | Parathyroid hormone increases calcium blood levels by stimulating bone breakdown, calcium reabsorption in the kidneys, and activation of vitamin D for calcium absorption in the intestines. |
| How does vitamin D regulate calcium | Vitamin D is activated by parathyroid hormone and helps increase calcium absorption in the intestines and release from bones into the bloodstream. |
| What does calcitonin do | Calcitonin decreases calcium levels by promoting bone building, increasing kidney calcium reabsorption, and inhibiting vitamin D activation. |
| How is growth hormone produced | Growth hormone is produced by somatotrophs in the anterior pituitary. |
| What does growth hormone do | Growth hormone stimulates growth, tissue repair, protein synthesis, and IGF-1 production. |
| How is growth hormone regulated | It is stimulated by GHRH from the hypothalamus and inhibited by GH and IGF-1. Glucocorticoids also inhibit its secretion. |
| How do growth hormone and IGF-1 work together | GH stimulates the liver to release IGF-1, which promotes growth, bone lengthening, and muscle mass increase. |
| What does IGF-1 do in the liver, adipose tissue, and skeletal muscles | In the liver, IGF-1 promotes glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis. In adipose tissue, it promotes the breakdown of triglycerides. In skeletal muscles, it stimulates glycogenolysis and fat breakdown for muscle metabolism. |
| What are the four layers of the digestive tract wall | Mucosa, Submucosa, Muscularis, Serosa. |
| What are the six functions of the digestive system | Ingest, Secrete, Digest, Absorb, Motility, Defecate. |
| What are the digestive functions of the oral cavity, pharynx, oesophagus, and stomach | - Oral Cavity: Digestion (chewing, saliva), secretion (saliva), motility (swallowing). - Pharynx: Directs food to oesophagus. - Oesophagus: Transports food, secretes mucus. - Stomach: Mixes food, begins protein digestion (pepsinogen → pepsin). |
| How does the stomach prevent self-digestion | The stomach uses inactive enzymes (pepsinogen) that activate in the acidic environment and secretes mucus to protect its lining. |
| What enzymes are involved in digestion in the oral cavity and stomach | - Oral Cavity: Salivary amylase (digests starch to maltose). - Stomach: Pepsin (digests proteins into peptides). |
| What is the structure and function of the small intestine | The small intestine has folds and villi to maximize surface area for nutrient absorption. |
| How do the pancreas and liver aid in digestion | - Pancreas: Secretes insulin/glucagon and digestive enzymes to break down macronutrients. - Liver: Produces bile for fat emulsification, processes nutrients, and regulates metabolism. |
| How are proteins, fats, and carbohydrates digested and absorbed | - Proteins: Pepsin starts digestion in the stomach, pancreatic proteases complete it in the small intestine. - Fats: Bile emulsifies fats, pancreatic lipase breaks them down into fatty acids. - Carbohydrates: Amylases break down starches to sugars, absorb |
| How are vitamins and minerals absorbed in the small intestine | - Vitamins: Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) absorbed with lipids; water-soluble vitamins (B, C) via transporters. - Minerals: Absorbed through active and passive diffusion across epithelial cells. |
| How does water move through the intestinal mucosa | Water moves through osmosis, following nutrient absorption to balance osmotic pressure. |
| What is the function of the large intestine | Absorbs water and electrolytes, ferments undigested food, stores and propels waste. |
| How does the structure of the large intestine relate to its function | Herbivores have larger caeca and longer intestines for fermentation. Carnivores have shorter intestines. Omnivores have a moderate-sized caecum and intestine for both fermentation and digestion. |
| What is the role of microbial digestion in the large intestine | Herbivores rely heavily on microbial fermentation for digesting plant fibers; carnivores have less microbial digestion due to their meat-based diet. |
| What triggers defecation | When faeces accumulates in the rectum, pressure activates the defecation reflex, leading to sphincter relaxation and expulsion. |
| What are the functions of the taenia and haustra in the colon | - Taenia: Bands of muscle that help with peristalsis and segmental contractions. - Haustra: Pouches that allow for expansion and contraction during waste storage and movement. |
| How are the cephalic, gastric, and intestinal phases of digestion regulated | - Cephalic: Triggered by the thought, smell, or sight of food; stimulates gastric secretions and motility. - Gastric: Activated by food in the stomach, increasing gastric secretions and motility. - Intestinal: Triggered by food entering the intestines; sl |
| What is the difference between fermentative and non-fermentative digestion | - Fermentative: Involves microbial breakdown of plant fibers in the rumen or caecum. - Non-fermentative: Relies mainly on enzymes for nutrient breakdown. |
| Which species rely heavily on fermentative digestion | Herbivores, especially those with rumens or large caeca (e.g., cows, rabbits). |
| What is the structure and function of ruminant forestomachs | - Rumen: Ferments food with microbes, producing VFAs for energy. - Reticulum: Collects smaller particles for cud. - Omasum: Absorbs water and nutrients. - Abomasum: Glandular compartment, similar to a monogastric stomach. |
| How does the process of fermentative digestion work in ruminants | Food enters the rumen for microbial fermentation, producing VFAs; partially digested food is regurgitated as cud; further digestion occurs in the reticulum, omasum, and abomasum. |
| How do animals use fermentative digestion to obtain energy | Herbivores and hindgut fermenters rely on microbial fermentation to break down plant fibers into VFAs, which are absorbed for energy. |
| What are the two main fluid compartments in the body | Intracellular Fluid (ICF) and Extracellular Fluid (ECF). |
| What is the primary composition difference between Intracellular Fluid (ICF) and Extracellular Fluid (ECF) | ICF has high concentrations of K+, Mg2+, HPO4-, and proteins, while ECF has high concentrations of Na+ and Cl-. |
| How does an increase in sodium levels affect water balance in the body | It causes water to move from ICF to ECF, increasing blood volume and pressure. |
| What triggers the sensation of thirst in the body | The hypothalamus detects increased blood osmolarity, activating osmoreceptors, releasing ADH, and stimulating the thirst center. |
| What is the pathway of urine flow through the urinary system | From the kidneys → ureters → bladder → urethra. |
| How is urine formed in the nephron | Blood is filtered through the glomerulus, forming filtrate, which passes through the proximal tubule, loop of Henle, distal tubule, and collecting ducts to form urine. |
| What happens in the Loop of Henle during urine formation | The descending limb reabsorbs water, while the ascending limb reabsorbs salts to create an osmotic gradient for concentrating urine. |
| How does blood flow to and from the glomerulus | Blood enters through afferent arterioles, is filtered in the glomerulus, and exits through efferent arterioles to the peritubular capillaries. |
| What is Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR) | GFR is the volume of glomerular filtrate formed each minute. |
| How do hydrostatic and osmotic pressures affect filtration in the glomerulus | Hydrostatic pressure pushes fluid into Bowman's capsule, while osmotic pressure pulls fluid into capillaries, affecting net filtration. |
| What factors increase GFR | Increased afferent arteriole diameter and decreased efferent arteriole diameter, which raise hydrostatic pressure. |
| How does the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS) affect blood pressure and GFR | RAAS constricts blood vessels, increases sodium and water retention, raising blood pressure and GFR. |
| What are the major functions of the kidneys | Removing metabolic waste, maintaining fluid/electrolyte balance, regulating blood pressure, and activating vitamin D. |
| How does the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) influence GFR and blood pressure | The SNS constricts blood vessels, raising blood pressure and decreasing GFR. |
| What does Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP) do for GFR and blood pressure | ANP promotes vasodilation, increases GFR, and decreases blood pressure by inhibiting sodium reabsorption. |
| What are the four processes involved in urine formation | Glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, tubular secretion, and urine concentration. |
| What is tubular reabsorption in the nephron | The process where the kidneys reabsorb water, ions, and nutrients back into the bloodstream. |
| How does the Loop of Henle contribute to urine concentration | The descending limb reabsorbs water, and the ascending limb reabsorbs salts to create an osmotic gradient. |
| How does ADH influence urine concentration | ADH increases water reabsorption in the collecting ducts, concentrating the urine. |
| How and why is water reabsorbed from the nephron | Water is reabsorbed to maintain fluid balance and blood pressure, influenced by osmotic gradients and hormones like ADH. |
| How and why is water secreted into the nephron | Water is not actively secreted into the nephron. |
| How and why are organic compounds reabsorbed from the nephron | Organic compounds like glucose, amino acids, and vitamins are reabsorbed in the proximal tubule to retain essential nutrients and maintain metabolic balance. |
| How and why are organic compounds secreted into the nephron | Organic compounds like urea and creatinine are secreted to eliminate waste and regulate acid-base balance. |
| How and why are ions reabsorbed from the nephron | Ions like Na+, Cl-, and HCO3- are reabsorbed to maintain electrolyte balance, blood pH, and blood pressure. |
| How and why are ions secreted into the nephron | Ions like H+ and K+ are secreted to regulate pH, electrolyte balance, and remove excess substances from the blood. |
| How does ADH work with the medullary osmotic gradient to produce concentrated urine | ADH increases water permeability in the collecting ducts, allowing water to move into the osmotic gradient, concentrating the urine. |
| What is urine made up of | Urine consists of excess water, electrolytes, waste products like urea, creatinine, uric acid, ammonia, and urobilin. |
| What is the pathway of urine flow | Urine flows from the kidneys through the renal pelvis, ureters, urinary bladder, and out through the urethra. |
| What is the process of micturition and how is it controlled | Micturition is the expulsion of urine. It is controlled by the contraction of the detrusor muscle and the relaxation of the internal and external urethral sphincters. |
| What is an acid and a base | An acid is a proton donor with a pH lower than 7, while a base is a proton acceptor with a pH higher than 7. |
| What are the similarities and differences between respiratory and metabolic acidosis | Both cause a drop in pH and symptoms like fatigue and shortness of breath. Respiratory acidosis is due to CO2 buildup, while metabolic acidosis results from excess acid or loss of bicarbonate. |
| How does the body compensate for an increase in acid load | The body uses buffer systems like bicarbonate and proteins, increases breathing to expel CO2, and kidneys excrete more H+ and reabsorb bicarbonate. |
| How does the body correct metabolic alkalosis | The body decreases breathing rate to retain CO2 and reduce alkalinity, and the kidneys excrete excess bicarbonate while retaining H+ to lower the pH. |
| What are the male and female gametes | Male gametes are sperm/spermatozoon in the testes, and female gametes are ova in the ovaries. |
| What are the male and female reproductive hormones | Male hormones are androgens, primarily testosterone, while female hormones are oestrogen and progesterone. |
| What is the process of sperm production | Sperm is produced in the testes, starting from spermatogonia (stem cells) that divide by spermatogenesis and mature into sperm. |
| Where is sperm stored | Sperm is stored in the epididymis, where final maturation also occurs. |
| What happens to the sperm during sex | Mature sperm travels from the epididymis to the urethra, mixes with secretions from accessory sex glands to form seminal plasma, combines with sperm to make semen, and is ejaculated into the female reproductive tract. |
| What is the oestrous cycle | The oestrous cycle prepares the female for pregnancy and includes the follicular phase, ovulation phase, and luteal phase. |
| What does oestrogen do | Oestrogen induces sexual receptivity and causes changes in the reproductive organs to prepare for pregnancy. |
| What is the male reproductive system made up of and what do these parts do | External parts include the penis (used for urination and sexual intercourse) and scrotum (holds and regulates the temperature of the testes). Internal parts include the testes (produce sperm and testosterone), epididymis (stores and matures sperm), vas de |
| What are the parts of a sperm/spermatozoon | The acrosome protects the head and contains enzymes to penetrate the ovum, the head contains haploid chromosomes, the midpiece contains mitochondria and enzymes for energy, and the tail propels the sperm towards the ovum. |
| What is the pathway of sperm production to maturation | Sperm develops in the seminiferous tubules of the testes, travels through the efferent ducts to the epididymis where it matures and gains swimming ability, is stored in the tail of the epididymis, then propelled through the deferent ducts into the urethra |
| What does testosterone do | Testosterone promotes sex drive, growth, spermatogenesis, secretions from accessory sex glands, and male characteristics like facial hair and a deep voice. |
| How is testosterone regulated | The hypothalamus releases GnRH, stimulating the anterior pituitary to release FSH and LH. FSH stimulates Sertoli cells for spermatogenesis and inhibin production, while LH stimulates Leydig cells to secrete testosterone. |
| What is the process of spermatogenesis | Spermatogonia transform into primary spermatocytes, then secondary spermatocytes, then spermatids, which undergo changes to become spermatozoa. These mature in the testes, move to the urethra via the deferent ducts, mix with seminal plasma, and are expell |
| What is the female reproductive system made up of and what are their functions | The ovaries produce female gametes and hormones, uterine tubes are the site of fertilisation, the uterus is where the fertilised ovum implants and the placenta develops, the cervix is a physical barrier during pregnancy, the vagina is the copulatory organ |
| What hormones are produced in the ovaries | Oestrogen, produced by ovarian follicles, prepares the female for breeding or pregnancy, and progesterone, produced by the corpus luteum, prepares the uterus for implantation and supports pregnancy. |
| What are the events of the follicular phase | Follicles develop in the ovaries, dominant follicles mature and secrete oestrogen, and the mature oocyte is ovulated from the dominant follicle. |
| What are the events of the early-mid follicular phase | GnRH from the hypothalamus stimulates the release of FSH and LH, which stimulate follicle development and oestrogen secretion. |
| What are the events of the luteal phase | The corpus luteum forms and secretes progesterone, degenerating near the end of the luteal phase due to prostaglandin produced by the uterus. |
| What are the three major processes that occur in the luteal stage | Follicle cells transform into luteal cells to form the corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone, and eventually degenerates due to prostaglandin production in non-pregnant females. |
| What are the luteal structures of the ovary | The corpus haemorrhagicum forms immediately after ovulation and turns into the corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone and oestrogen, and then degenerates into the corpus albicans if pregnancy doesn't occur. |
| What are the stages of the oestrus cycle | Proestrus is follicular development, oestrus is the period of sexual receptivity, metoestrus is after ovulation when the corpus haemorrhagicum forms, dioestrus is the active luteal stage, and anoestrus is a period of ovarian inactivity. |
| What is the production of hormones like in the different stages of the oestrus cycle | In proestrus, FSH is mid, LH is low, oestrogen is increasing, and progesterone is very low. In oestrus, FSH decreases, LH surges, oestrogen peaks, and progesterone begins to rise. In dioestrus, FSH is low, LH decreases, oestrogen decreases, and progeste |
| What is the oestrus cycle of a cow | Oestrus lasts 12-24 hours with visible signs like vulval mucus and increased activity. Dioestrus lasts around 20 days, with normal activity but no mounting. |
| What is the oestrus cycle of a bitch | Proestrus lasts about 9 days with a swollen vulva and bloody discharge. Oestrus lasts 9 days with signs like a swollen vulva, straw-coloured discharge, and receptivity to males. Dioestrus lasts 12 months, and anoestrus lasts around 5 months, during which |
| What is the oestrus cycle of a queen | Proestrus lasts 0-2 days with little to no behavioural changes. Oestrus lasts 4-10 days with noticeable behaviours like vocalisation, restlessness, and lordosis. Post-oestrus lasts 8-10 days with normal behaviour returning. Dioestrus lasts about 40 days, |
| What are the processes by which sperm move from the male reproductive tract to the uterine tube of the female | Erection, copulation, and ejaculation enable sperm movement. Erection is the enlargement of the penis, copulation involves mounting and ejaculation, which expels semen into the reproductive tract. |
| What are the processes of capacitation of spermatozoa and fertilisation of the oocyte | Capacitation occurs in the female reproductive tract and prepares sperm to fertilise the egg. Sperm binds to the zona pellucida, undergoes the acrosome reaction, and penetrates the oocyte's cell membrane. The oocyte's membrane blocks further sperm entry ( |
| What is the structure and function of the placenta | The placenta includes the chorion, allantois, amnion, and umbilical cord. It facilitates nutrient and waste exchange, hormone production, fetal protection, and a safe environment for the fetus. |
| What is the flow of blood in the fetus | Oxygen-rich blood flows from the maternal arteries through the placenta and umbilical vein to the fetus, mixes with deoxygenated blood in the fetal liver, and is circulated via the aorta to the body, returning via the umbilical arteries to the placenta. |
| What are the stages of parturition | Stage 1 involves uterine contractions and cervical dilation, Stage 2 is the delivery of the baby, and Stage 3 is the delivery of the placenta. |
| How is parturition initiated and regulated | It is initiated by an increase in oestrogen and a decrease in progesterone, triggering uterine contractions. The fetus contributes by producing hormones that trigger labor, which is amplified by a positive feedback loop of oxytocin release. |
| What are mammary glands | Mammary glands are specialized sweat glands that produce colostrum and milk and are only functional in females. |
| What is the structure and function of mammary glands | Mammary glands consist of alveoli (milk-producing units), myoepithelial cells (contract to expel milk), a duct system (transports milk), and a teat (external opening for milk). Their function is to produce and secrete milk to nourish offspring. |
| What is the process of mammary gland development, lactation, and milk let-down | Mammary glands develop during puberty and pregnancy, with prolactin stimulating milk production after birth. Milk let-down is triggered by suckling or stimuli, causing oxytocin release and milk expulsion. |
| Why is colostrum important to the health of the neonate | Colostrum provides nutritional support, immune protection through immunoglobulins, and long-term health benefits, making it crucial for the neonate's development and immunity. |
Created by:
user-1912558
Popular Veterinary sets