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ANSC3070 thru exam 1
sm. animal anat/phys: intro, body water, tissues/body cavities, blood/lymph/imm.
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| focuses of anatomy | ∙ form and structure ∙ microscopic (histology) vs. macroscopic (gross) ∙ regional anatomy vs. systemic |
| focuses of physiology | ∙ function of body parts ∙ depends on anatomy |
| structural body systems | ∙ function as framework and for transport ∙ ex. skeletal, muscular |
| coordinating body systems | ∙ function as control mechanisms of the body ∙ ex. nervous, endocrine |
| visceral body systems | ∙ basic functional systems ∙ ex. digestive, urinary, reproductive, circulatory |
| three body cavities: | ∙ thoracic (chest) ∙ abdominal (stomach) ∙ pelvic (pelvis region) |
| long axis | ∙ an invisible line thru the the middle of an organ or body part is its long axis ∙ proximal (near) and distal (far) used to describe position vs. main body mass |
| horizontal plane (aka dorsal plane) | ∙ divides the animal into equal 'top and bottom' parts - runs parallel with the length of the body ∙ dorsal is closer to the back, ventral is closer to the belly |
| median plane | ∙ divides the animal into equal 'left and right' parts - is parallel to the length of the body ∙ medial is closer to this plane, lateral is farther from this plane |
| transverse plane | ∙ divides the animal into equal 'front and back' parts - is perpendicular to the length of the body ∙ cranial is closer to the head, caudal is closer to the tail ∙ may also intersect a limb: use proximal/distal |
| directional terms - head | ∙ rostral is towards the tip of the nose, caudal is away from the tip of the nose ∙ when describing specific structures: anterior (forwards), posterior (backwards), superior (up), inferior (down) |
| directional terms - limbs (canine/feline) | ∙ front limbs: wrist joint is the carpus, dorsal surface is the 'top' side, palmar surface is the 'bottom' side ∙ hind limbs: ankle joint is the tarsus, dorsal is 'top', plantar is 'bottom' |
| sagittal plane | ∙ many possible planes ∙ all run parallel to median plane, creating right and left 'slices' of the animal |
| identifying digits | ∙ first identify long/median axis down length of limb ∙ axial sides of the digits face this axis; abaxial sides face away from this axis |
| deep vs. superifical | ∙ deep is towards the center of the body or part ∙ superficial is towards the surface of the body or part ∙ similar to internal vs. external (used for organs) |
| proximal vs. distal | ∙ proximal is towards the main mass of the body or part ∙ distal is away from the main mass of the body or part |
| 4 basic tissue types | ∙ epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous ∙ connective is largest and most diverse group |
| which body system is most responsible for homeostasis? | ∙ the neuroendocrine system ∙ nervous system responds immediately to short-term needs while endocrine responses last hours or days |
| negative biological feedback system | ∙ most commonly seen feedback loop in mammals ∙ negative feedback turns off the stimulus that caused the response in the first place ∙ ex. control of blood sugar by insulin |
| positive biological feedback system | ∙ reaction causes an amplification of the original stimulus ∙ ex. fetal oxytocin increases uterine contractions and release of maternal oxytocin |
| feedback system process | ∙ variable is the factor being regulated ∙ receptors (neurons) sense a stimulus (change in environment) ∙ receptor carries afferent signal to control center ∙ efferent signal is sent to effector to induce change |
| which cells have greater metabolic needs than others? | ∙ larger cells/larger surface area: cardiac, skeletal ∙ these cells may have multiple nuclei to coordinate the cell's activities for this greater metabolic need |
| which molecules stiffen the cell membrane? | ∙ cholesterol |
| hydrophilic/hydrophobic properties of the cell membrane | ∙ hydrophilic 'heads' face outside and hydrophobic 'tails' face inside -> selectively permeable membrane ∙ most lipid soluble materials pass thru easily (O2, CO2) ∙ ionized and water soluble materials do not readily pass thru (amino acids, sugars) |
| passive transport across the cell membrane | ∙ will never use ATP/energy - always follows concentration gradient ∙ simple diffusion of lipid soluble molecules (H2O, O2) ∙ facilitated diffusion with help of carrier proteins (glucose) ∙ osmosis (diffusion of water) |
| active transport across the cell membrane | ∙ uses ATP/energy to move molecules against the concentration gradient with help of membrane-bound protein pump ∙ ex. sodium/potassium pump (Na+/K+ pump), endocytosis, exocytosis |
| osmosis vs. diffusion | ∙ diffusion: movement down concentration gradient (high to low) until equilibrium is reached - can only occur when particle size is small enough to pass thru membrane pores ∙ osmosis: diffusion of water across membrane from high to low H2O concentration |
| organelle functions to remember | ∙ nucleolus: produces ribosomes ∙ rough ER: transport proteins synthesized by attached ribosomes ∙ smooth ER: synthesize and transport lipids and steroids ∙ golgi: modify proteins and form lysosomes |
| stages of aerobic respiration within the mitochondrion | ∙ overall process occurs in mitochondrion ∙ Krebs cycle takes place in the matrix (space within), ETC takes place in the cristae (folded inner membrane) |
| 3 steps of cellular respiration | ∙ glycolysis (in cytoplasm) split glucose into pyruvate/lactic acid, make 2 ATP ∙ Krebs cycle: make 2 more ATP ∙ ETC: make 32 more ATP |
| cell growth | ∙ hyperplasia is increase in number, hypertrophy is increase in size ∙ new cells need to be created ans must be able to accomplish certain functions |
| 2 types of extracellular fluid | ∙ plasma: medium for blood cell transport in circulatory system ∙ interstitial fluid: formed by blood cells via ultrafiltration, blood pressure forces small ions and molecules thru capillary walls into interstitial space to be used by cells |
| daily water losses in small animals | ∙ urine: 20 mL per kg body weight ∙ feces: 10-20 mL per kg body weight ∙ expired air: 20 mL per kg body weight ∙ intake should be 50-60 mL per kg per day |
| anabolic vs. catabolic reactions | ∙ anabolic: requires energy input ∙ catabolic: releases energy |
| electrolytes | ∙ chemical substance capable of conducting an electrical current when dissolved in water ∙ ex. NaCl |
| minerals | ∙ important in regulating fluids between intracellular and extracellular spaces - balance maintained by active transport pumps in the cell membrane ∙ cations: Na, Ca, K, Mg ∙ anions: Cl, HCO3 |
| role of Na cation | ∙ as concentration rises in the extracellular fluid, osmotic pressure of blood rises |
| role of K cation | ∙ high concentration in the extracellular fluid can disrupt heart function - hyperkalemia |
| role of Ca cation | ∙ important for muscle contraction, nerve conduction, blood clotting |
| carbohydrates | ∙ sugars obtained from the diet ∙ glucose is stored as glycogen in animals |
| lipids | ∙ stockpiled as an energy source and transported as fatty acids ∙ insulation, formation of steroids and cell membranes |
| proteins | ∙ subunits are amino acids ∙ globular/functional proteins: hormones, enzymes ∙ fibrous/structural proteins: keratin, elastin, collagen |
| why is water a good transport medium in the body? | ∙ high specific heat (rxns produce less excess heat in the body) ∙ lubrication between cells and between body parts (joints) |
| role of water in canine and feline nutrition | ∙ transports nutrients to cells and moves wastes out of cells ∙ role in chemical rxns, helps dissipate heat, aids in gas exchange in the lungs ∙ present in all cells, tissues, and fluids - maintain shape and flexibility of body |
| osmotic pressure | ∙ measure of water's tendency to osmose - water diffuses to areas of high osmotic pressure (more solute/less water) |
| total body water | ∙ sum of amounts of water in extracellular and intracellular compartments ∙ 2/3 ICF, 1/3 ECF (plasma, interstitial fluid, transcellular fluid) ∙ variable; ex. overweight animals have lower TBW, dehydrate faster |
| interstitial fluid | ∙ originates from leakage out of capillaries, 3/4 of ECF ∙ largely comprised of hyaluronic acid (gelatinous - structure) ∙ movement governed by electrolytes, proteins, other osmotically active particles |
| water gain | ∙ ingestion ∙ metabolism: yield greatest in fat metabolism ∙ animals should take in around 2.5x more water than food |
| small dog water needs | ∙ dog 20lbs or less: 1 cup/8oz water per 5lb body weight ∙ 15lb dog needs 3 cups of water daily |
| water loss | ∙ insensible: constant loss thru exhaled air and skin ∙ sensible: visible loss thru urine, feces, other secretions, may become excessive (diarrhea) |
| relationship between body weight and water needs? | ∙ no linear relationship - water needs depend on caloric expenditure, which is related linearly to body surface area ∙ environment, physical activity, lactation, stress/illness/fever all affect water consumption |
| fluid therapy | ∙ used to replace intravascular volume (perfusion), interstitial volume (dehydration), or correct electrolyte imbalances (hypercalcemia, hypokalemia) ∙ volume/rate guided by pathologic conditions (ex. diarrhea) ∙ maintenance: 40-60mL per kg per day |
| plasma osmolality | ∙ synonym of osmotic pressure - higher = more solute, less water ∙ function of ratio of body solute to body water, regulated by changes in water balance |
| osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus | ∙ sense changes in plasma osmolality as small as 1-2% ∙ receptors initiate mechanisms that affect water intake: thirst and excretion ∙ ADH made by posterior pituitary -> kidneys -> reduce urination |
| tonicity | ∙ concentration of substances in liquid relative to that found in normal plasma - electrolytes, colloids, proteins ∙ cell membrane permeable to water -> cell's environment has dramatic effect on cells |
| dehydration | ∙ water is first lost from ECF - water loss from ICF is bad ∙ loss of 10% of body weight is severe ∙ electrolytes lost thru kidneys in proportion to water loss - rehydration requires water and electrolytes |
| symptoms of dehydration | ∙ sunken eyes ∙ lethargy ∙ loss of appetite ∙ dry mouth ∙ depression |
| pets at highest risk of dehydration | ∙ ill animals: kidney disorders, cancer, diabetes, infectious disease ∙ elderly animals ∙ pregnant or nursing animals |
| phases of fluid therapy | ∙ emergency, replacement, maintenance phases ∙ only replace 75-80% of deficit volume to prevent urinary losses which encourage further dehydration |
| subcutaneous (SQ) fluids | ∙ isotonic fluid injected just under the skin to aid mild dehydration - dogs/cats have very vascular fat right under the skin ∙ only use 5-10mL per lb at each site for patient comfort |
| intravenous (IV) fluids | ∙ most efficient - indicated in dogs/cats with >7% dehydration ∙ can use peripheral veins (limbs), jugular veins (only on a still/calm animal), intraosseous ∙ not always possible |
| why are IV fluids not always a feasible option? | ∙ client finances ∙ animal is too small, too sick, or too dehydrated ∙ medical complications |
| isotonic crystalloid IV fluids | ∙ tonicity similar to serum ∙ restore fluid deficits, correct electrolyte balance, provide maintenance fluid requirement ∙ ex. 0.9% saline, lactated Ringer's, Normosol-R |
| hypotonic crystalloid IV fluids | ∙ tonicity less than serum ∙ treat patients with diseases causing water and sodium retention - CHF, hepatic disease ∙ ex. 0.45% saline, 0.45% NaCL + 2.5% dextrose, 5% dextrose |
| hypertonic crystalloid IV fluids | ∙ draw interstitial fluid into intravascular space to correct hypervolemia ∙ administer in combination with a colloid (10mL/kg hetastarch, dextran 70) to avoid interstitial edema |
| colloid IV fluids | ∙ only corrects intravascular dehydration ∙ administer with crystalloids ∙ very dense and protein rich ∙ ex. Hetastarch |
| camels | ∙ endure dehydration of 30% of body weight compared to 10-12% in dogs and cats ∙ able to store body heat during the day as dissipation requires evaporation of water ∙ rapidly ingests water up to 25% of body weight |
| three main components of all tissues | ∙ cells ∙ intercellular products ∙ fluid (interstitial fluid) |
| four main types of tissues | ∙ epithelial: covers and lines - skin and GI lining ∙ connective: provides support - bone, cartilage, blood ∙ muscle: enables movement - cardiac, skeletal, smooth ∙ nervous: controls work |
| histology | ∙ the microscopic study of tissues |
| cytology | ∙ subspecialty of anatomy ∙ structure and function of individual cells |
| pathology | ∙ changes in gross anatomy, histology, or cytology in disease or injury |
| necropsy | ∙ veterinary term ∙ gross and microscopic exam of tissues post mortem |
| parenchyma | ∙ functional portion of tissue or organ ∙ ex. epithelial cells of the nephron (kidney) |
| stroma | ∙ support cells of parenchyma |
| epithelial tissue functions | ∙ protects, covers, lines ∙ filters biochemical substances ∙ absorbs nutrients ∙ provides sensory input ∙ manufactures secretions ∙ manufactures excretions (wastes) |
| general characteristics of epithelia | ∙ epithelial cells are polar: functional apical surface faces lumen, basal surface faces basement membrane ∙ basement membrane and cellular attachments ∙ avascular ∙ simple or stratified/compound |
| basement membrane | ∙ meshwork of fibers that cements epithelial cells to underlying tissues and allows oxygen and nutrients to diffuse to epithelial cells ∙ acts as a barrier - cancerous epithelial cells do not respect this boundary |
| cellular attachments | ∙ lateral surfaces of epithelial cells fit together like a jigsaw puzzle ∙ may include channels between cells to transport nutrients from underlying connective tissue |
| tight cellular junction | ∙ adjacent plasma membranes are fused, no space between cells ∙ found in areas that cannot leak: bladder, uterus |
| desmosome (cellular junction) | ∙ intermediate filaments (tonofilaments) form tough bonds between cells in high tension areas like skin |
| gap cellular junctions | ∙ linked by tubular channel proteins (connexons) that connect adjacent cytoplasms - allows materials to travel thru ∙ found in nervous system, muscles |
| surface specializations of epithelial cells | ∙ variations depending on location and function ∙ keratin: waterproof protein that retains shape and body water - skin, trachea ∙ brush border with microvilli: move substances, increase surface area - small intestine |
| classifications of epithelium | ∙ simple (one layer) vs. stratified (many layers) ∙ columnar (tall), cuboidal (equal sides), or squamous (flat) |
| simple squamous epithelium | ∙ flat, thin, delicate layer, needs to be permeable ∙ ex. in alveoli in lungs for gas exchange |
| simple cuboidal epithelium | ∙ found in exocrine and endocrine tissues ∙ where secretion and absorption take place - glands |
| simple columnar epithelium | ∙ tall, narrow cells ∙ lines organs with absorptive or secretory functions - intestines, stomach, digestive glands |
| stratified epithelium | ∙ thicker and tougher for areas subjected to friction and shearing forces - skin, mouth ∙ may be keratinized (epidermis) or nonkeratinized |
| transitional epithelium | ∙ in some organs that stretch and are leakproof - bladder, uterus ∙ multiple layers, cell shape changes depending on degree of stretch |
| canine parvoviral enteritis | ∙ contagious, high mortality and morbidity ∙ virus shed in feces, carried on shoes and clothing ∙ virus attacks highly mitotic cells like those in the intestinal crypts/villi |
| ciliated epithelium | ∙ single layer of columnar cells with cilia - respiratory tract lining ∙ usually seen with goblet cells which produce mucus - ciliated cells move this mucus to trap and remove contaminants |
| glandular epithelium | ∙ epithelia are the secretory cells of all glands ∙ a gland is a type or group of cells producing something |
| classifications of glands | ∙ presence or absence of ducts: exocrine or endocrine ∙ number of cells: uni or multicellular ∙ shape of secreting ducts: simple or compound ∙ complexity of gland: tubular, acinar, tubuloacinar ∙ secretion produced, storage, discharge |
| endocrine glands | ∙ no ducts or tubules - pituitary, thyroid ∙ secretions (hormones) distributed all over body thru bloodstream |
| exocrine glands | ∙ ducts deliver secretions directly to tissues - salivary glands ∙ act locally, secretions do not enter bloodstream |
| unicellular exocrine glands | ∙ individual secretory cells in tissues - goblet cells ∙ lie within epithelium, secretions protect from contaminants and friction |
| multicellular exocrine glands | ∙ secretory unit + duct ∙ secretory unit surrounded by connective tissue rich in nerves and blood ∙ rate of secretion production and discharge controlled by hormones and nervous system |
| shapes of multicellular exocrine glands | ∙ secretory portions form variety of shapes: tubular, acinar, alveolar |
| secretory epithelial sheath | ∙ simplest form of a multicellular gland, consists entirely of secretory cells ∙ stomach lining - mucous secretion protects stomach wall from acidic contents |
| merocrine secretion (from exocrine gland) | ∙ secretion stored in cellular vesicle then leaves thru exocytosis - majority of glands ∙ vesicles open at cellular surface with no loss of cell substance, membrane heals quickly |
| apocrine secretion (from exocrine gland) | ∙ part of apical cytoplasm of cell is lost with secretory product - cell must be repaired but epithelium is easily able to repair perfectly ∙ sweat glands, mammary glands, prostate |
| holocrine secretion (from exocrine gland) | ∙ breakdown and discharge of entire secretory cell - programmed/normal cell death ∙ only occurs in sebaceous glands of skin |
| connective tissue | ∙ most abundant tissue type by body weight ∙ made mostly of nonliving extracellular matrix - ground substance ∙ is vascularized - less dense tissues more vascular than dense tissues like bone |
| connective tissue types in order of increasing density | ∙ blood: cells in fluid plasma ∙ hematopoietic: jelly-like bone marrow ∙ areolar/loose: most widely distributed ∙ adipose: insulation, energy ∙ fibrous/dense ∙ cartilage ∙ bone |
| matrix of connective tissue | ∙ ground substance: liquid/gel/solid where cells exchange nutrients and wastes ∙ fibers: collagenous, reticular, elastic |
| collagenous fibers | ∙ thick strands of collagen - "white fibers" ∙ tendons, ligaments |
| reticular fibers | ∙ thin collagen strands ∙ supports organs like spleen, liver, bone marrow |
| elastic fibers | ∙ "yellow fibers" that give to pressure and return to original shape ∙ vocal cords, skin, lungs, blood vessel walls |
| cells of connective tissue | ∙ fixed cells don't move: adipocytes, fibroblasts, reticular ∙ wandering cells are mobile/transient: mast cells, leukocytes, macrophages |
| strengths of connective tissue | ∙ ground substances vary, allowing tissue to have many different qualities: rigid, flexible, semisolid, liquid ∙ can withstand forces that other tissues can't: direct pressure, abrasion, shearing forces |
| areolar connective tissue | ∙ found beneath skin, around blood vessels and nerves, between and connecting organs, between muscle bundles ∙ "prototype" connective tissue - contains many fiber and cell types ∙ ground substance: both collagen and elastic fibers, macrophages |
| adipose connective tissue | ∙ fat, mostly adipocytes, little extracellular material - around organs and under skin ∙ highly vascularized -> glycerol and free fatty acids can be transported ∙ thermal insulator, shock absorber, energy storage |
| brown adipose tissue | ∙ high number of mitochondria to release energy from lipid oxidation as HEAT instead of ATP ∙ more vascular than white fat, found in young and hibernating animals ∙ non-hibernators: diminishes with age as nervous system controls body temp |
| white adipose tissue | ∙ "chicken wire" appearance -> marbling in meats ∙ amount of lipid stored in cells fluctuates with diet/condition but number of cells remains the same ∙ cells long-lived, normally don't divide |
| reticular connective tissue | ∙ contains only thin reticular fibers, fibroblasts, lymphocytes ∙ forms stroma of soft organs like spleen and lymph nodes |
| dense/fibrous connective tissue | ∙ parallel fibers: tendons, ligaments ∙ irregular interwoven fibers, often in sheets: fascias, joint capsules, dermis |
| dense regular connective tissue | ∙ parallel collagen fibers, fibroblasts ∙ found in tendons, ligaments, fascial coverings |
| dense irregular connective tissue | ∙ disorganized collagen fibers, fibroblasts ∙ found in deep dermis of skin, submucosa of hollow organs |
| specialized connective tissues | ∙ cartilage: hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage ∙ bone: compact, cancellous ∙ blood |
| cartilage | ∙ rigid, flexible, resilient ∙ cells: chondrocytes ∙ ground substance: chontroitin sulfate, hyaluronic acid ∙ avascular, lacks nerves; found in joints, ears, nose |
| hyaline cartilage | ∙ most rigid, most common ∙ tracheal rings, growth plates, articular surfaces |
| elastic cartilage | ∙ flexible, withstands repeated bending ∙ epiglottis, ears |
| fibrocartilage | ∙ in high compression areas ∙ intravertebral discs |
| bone | ∙ densest connective tissue ∙ bone calcification -> calcium phosphate crystals ∙ periosteum: outer layer that supplies blood, nerves, cells ∙ osteoblasts trapped in lacunae, haversian canals for nerves and capillaries ∙ compact or cancellous |
| blood | ∙ plasma: liquid component ∙ erythrocytes: red blood cells, small ∙ thrombocytes: platelets ∙ leukocytes: white blood cells, large |
| connective tissue types | ∙ regular types are loose or dense 1. loose: areolar, adipose, reticular 2. dense: regular, irregular, elastic ∙ specialized types are cartilage, bone, and blood 1. cartilage: hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage 2. bone: compact, cancellous 3. blood |
| membranes | ∙ epithelial + connective tissues = membranes: multicellular epithelial sheets bound to underlying layer of connective tissue ∙ all membranes produce something: mucous, transudate, etc. |
| mucous membranes | ∙ line organs that connect to outside environment (gut): protection, absorption, secretion, moisture ∙ large numbers of goblet cells -> large amounts of mucous -> less friction, rich in antibodies |
| mucous membranes as indicators of morbidity | ∙ dry, tacky: dehydration ∙ pale, white: shock, anemia, hypothermia ∙ check capillary refill time |
| serous membranes | ∙ line walls of body cavities and cover organs within those cavities - continuous sheet that doubles over on itself to form 2 layers ∙ parietal layer is superficial and visceral layer is deep |
| serous/serosal fluid | ∙ transudate: electrolytes, no mucin, thin and watery ∙ decrease friction between organs and body cavity walls |
| thoracic cavity | ∙ heart, lungs, etc. - cavity negatively pressurized so lungs to expand ∙ cavity ends at diaphragm, which includes passages for esophagus, aorta, etc. ∙ 2 pleural cavities separated by mediastinum (tissue septum, holds everything but lungs) |
| abdominal cavity | ∙ caudal to thoracic cavity, begins at diaphragm ∙ lined by peritoneum (serous membrane) |
| pelvic cavity | ∙ caudal to abdominal cavity but no physical division ∙ includes bladder, rectum, reproductive organs |
| formation of organs in abdominopelvic cavity | ∙ organs form and carry peritoneum before them: invagination ∙ folded peritoneum keeps organs separated, suspends them within cavity, supplies nerves and vessels |
| omentum vs. mesentery | ∙ both parts of peritoneum, both very vascular with large vessels ∙ omentum attaches to stomach ∙ mesentery attaches to dorsal aspect of intestines |
| visceral vs. parietal layer of serous membrane | ∙ visceral: surrounds organ ∙ parietal: lines body wall |
| pleura | ∙ two pleural cavities ∙ serous membrane of the thoracic cavity |
| peritoneum | ∙ serous membrane of abdominopelvic cavity |
| effusion | ∙ excess serosal fluid production ∙ trauma, pathology |
| ascites | ∙ effusion in abdominal cavity ∙ canine: indicates heartworm infection |
| hemothorax | ∙ blood in chest cavity ∙ can progress to collapsed lung |
| adhesions | ∙ serosal fluid production decreases -> adhesions between parietal and visceral layers of serous membrane ∙ organs stick together - scar tissue |
| cutaneous membranes | ∙ skin/integument ∙ outer keratinized stratified squamous epithelium - epidermis |
| keratin | ∙ protein: waxy, waterproof, resists abrasion ∙ fills certain epithelial cells as they migrate from basement -> outer layer ∙ helps prevent dessication |
| synovial membranes | ∙ line joint cavities, make synovial fluid that fills joint spaces - lubrication and nutrition ∙ no epithelium - only connective tissue |
| muscle tissue | ∙ actin and myosin: specialized proteins in microfilaments that contract ∙ striated: skeletal, cardiac ∙ unstriated: smooth |
| nervous tissue | ∙ neurons: cell body, dendrons, axons ∙ dendrons receive info from other cells and axons send signals to next cells ∙ longest cells in the body |
| myelin | ∙ fatty substance that covers axons - myelin sheath ∙ myelin sheaths enhance signal transduction in higher-level vertebrates |
| inflammation | ∙ initial response to trauma and injuries - does not always mean infection ∙ nonspecific yet essential for survival - rids body of initial cause of cell injury |
| step 1 of tissue healing | ∙ inflammation ∙ vasoconstriction controls hemorrhage; vasodilation -> plasma enters area ∙ fibrin clot formation -> microphages/neutrophils -> return to normal |
| heparin and histamine | ∙ stimulate vasodilation ∙ when levels drop, inflammation subsides |
| step 2 of tissue healing | ∙ organization ∙ granulation tissue forms beneath clot -> collagen fibers from fibroblasts -> capillaries |
| granulation tissue | ∙ produces bacterium-inhibiting substances as tissue heals ∙ may become excessive in equine healing |
| step 3 of tissue healing | ∙ epithelialization - minor damage will not scar ∙ fibroblasts -> collagen, new basement, multi-layered epithelium re-established ∙ granulation tissue -> fibrous scar tissue |
| stenosis | ∙ narrowing of airway, esophagus, GI tract due to scar tissue ∙ scar tissue strong but stiff and fibrin deposition is permanent |
| 1st intention healing | ∙ edges held in close apposition: superficial scratches or sutured wounds ∙ skin forms primary union without need for granulation tissue or scarring |
| 2nd intention healing | ∙ granulation and scar tissue needed for healing |
| 3rd intention healing | ∙ gaping wounds or wide abrasions: heal slowly, scar badly |
| blood as a transport system | ∙ transports cells, wastes, hormones, platelets, etc. |
| blood as a regulatory system | ∙ temp of blood influences temp regulators in the brain ∙ aids in tissue fluid homeostasis - regulates pH |
| blood as a defense system | ∙ white blood cells ∙ 13 clotting factors |
| blood composition | ∙ liquid: plasma ∙ cells: erythrocytes, leukocytes, thrombocytes |
| hematocrit/PCV | ∙ blood sample spun in centrifuge ∙ cells heavier than plasma and compact at end of tube: RBCs heaviest, WBC 'buffy coat' on top |
| normal hematocrit values | ∙ feline: 29 - 50% ∙ canine: 40 - 59% ∙ too low -> anemia ∙ too high -> dehydration |
| red blood cell count | ∙ measure of actual number of RBCs in a given quantity of blood - not a percentage ∙ feline avg: 6 - 12 * 10^6 RBC/microliter ∙ canine avg: 5.5 - 9 * 10^6 RBC/microliter |
| hemoglobin concentration | ∙ quantifying amount of hemoglobin present ∙ some anemias may be caused by RBCs lacking normal amount of hemoglobin or iron deficiency |
| normal hemoglobin concentration calues | ∙ feline: 9 - 15.5 g/dL ∙ canine: 14 - 20 g/dL |
| false hypoglycemia | ∙ RBCs continue to utilize glucose after blood sample is taken ∙ false hypoglycemia occurs if the sample sits for too long |
| plasma | ∙ 45 - 78% of blood sample - canines have larger blood cells so less plasma ∙ 93% water ∙ proteins: albumins, fibrinogen, globulins |
| why is plasma yellow? | ∙ some RBCs will lyse during centrifuging -> hemoglobin and bilirubin released -> yellow color |
| albumin | ∙ most common plasma protein, made by liver ∙ increases oncotic pressure of blood -> water moves from tissue into capillaries ∙ transport protein - needed to maintain blood volume and pressure |
| fibrinogen | ∙ clotting protein to contain internal bleeding ∙ converted into threads of fibrin during clot formation |
| globulins | ∙ large, heavy antibodies ∙ IGG, IGA, IGM, etc. |
| serum | ∙ blood plasma without fibrinogen and other clotting factors ∙ very few tests require this now |
| cellular blood components | ∙ erythrocytes (RBC) ∙ thrombocytes ∙ leukocytes (granulocytes and agranulocytes) |
| types of leukocytes | ∙ granulocytes: eosinophils (red stain), basophils (blue stain), neutrophils (no stain) ∙ agranulocytes: monocytes (large), lymphocytes (small) |
| central pallor | ∙ characteristic of RBCs - their center looks pale when viewing under microscope ∙ no nucleus at maturity -> ability to expand/shrink readily |
| blood volume | ∙ estimate using lean body weight; 50 - 100 mL blood per kg body weight depending on species ∙ animal with 25% volume blood loss -> 50/50 chance of survival |
| hematopoiesis | ∙ formation and development of blood cells ∙ medullary: most cells produced in red bone marrow ∙ extra-medullary: liver and spleen - production is not enough to sustain life |
| PPSCs | ∙ pluripotent stem cells ∙ all blood cells differentiate from this type of cell ∙ self-perpetuating: mitotic division occurs before cell differentiation |
| erythropoeisis | ∙ formation of RBCs ∙ when immature reticulocytes mature: lose nucleus, less cytoplasm, produce hemoglobin in cytoplasm |
| erythrocyte | ∙ uniform biconcave disk; central pallor ∙ lifespan ~120 days |
| reticulocytosis | ∙ reticulocyte count >1.5% is abnormal ∙ possibly bone marrow disease, probably anemia |
| hemoglobin | ∙ heme: pigment, each heme can hold one O2 molecule ∙ 4 heme groups per globin molecule ∙ globin: protein portion ∙ ability to carry O2 influenced by: pH, O2, CO2, temp |
| RBC destruction | ∙ lifespan of cells varies with species - avg. 110-120 days ∙ 90% of RBCs: extravascular hemolysis by macrophages ∙ 10% of RBCs: mechanical or metabolic stress -> intravascular hemolysis |
| senescence | ∙ state of RBC when old ∙ glycolytic enzyme activity down ∙ cell becomes rounder |
| jaundice | ∙ more than 10% of RBCs destroyed by extravascular hemolysis ∙ cytoplasmic contents released into bloodstream -> liver can't conjugate excess -> bilirubin in tissues (very bad sign) ∙ prehepatic |
| what is recycled after hemolysis? | ∙ heme -> iron (precious commodity) -> bone marrow ∙ heme -> bilirubin, transported with albumin -> liver -> bile ∙ globin portion broken down -> amino acids -> liver for recycling |
| bile | ∙ heme -> porphyrin -> bilirubin + albumin ∙ also: fats, drug metabolites, other wastes |
| hemoglobinemia | ∙ occurs with excess intravascular hemolysis + bilirubin transport proteins are full -> plasma is dark |
| hemoglobinuria | ∙ occurs with excess intravascular hemolysis + bilirubin taken to kidneys for excretion -> reddish urine |
| anemia | ∙ decrease in O2 carrying capacity of blood ∙ lethargy, pale gums, confusion, rapid breathing ∙ can be fatal if untreated |
| causes of anemia | ∙ low number of circulating RBCs - loss, destruction, low production ∙ or too little hemoglobin produced - maybe from iron deficiency |
| hemorrhagic anemia | ∙ cells leak out of blood vessels |
| hemolytic anemia | ∙ cells destroyed within the body |
| bone marrow depression anemia | ∙ bone marrow is unable to produce adequate erythrocytes |
| nutritional deficiency anemia | ∙ body lacks sufficient raw materials to manufacture needed cells ∙ most commonly iron |
| regenerative anemia | ∙ body producing new RBCs - look for retics ∙ hemorrhagic and hemolytic anemia - blood loss, parasites |
| non-regenerative anemia | ∙ animal has lost ability to produce new RBCs ∙ bone marrow disease, FeLV |
| spherocytes | ∙ small, round erythrocytes lacking central pallor ∙ often seen in dogs with immune-mediated hemolytic anemia ∙ indicate regenerative anemia together with large polychromatophilic retics |
| erythropoietin cycle | ∙ kidneys sense low O2 -> release Epo -> stimulates stem cells in bone marrow -> RBCs ∙ new oxygenated RBCs -> O2 normal -> kidneys stop producing Epo ∙ often first response to anemia ∙ |
| relative polycytemia | ∙ loss of fluid from blood -> increase hemoconcentration ∙ number of RBCs is elevated because there is less fluid: vomiting, diarrhea, sweating |
| compensatory polycytemia | ∙ number of RBCs elevated to compensate for hypoxia ∙ congestive heart failure, animals at high altitude |
| rubra vera polycytemia | ∙ bone marrow increases production of RBCs ∙ etiology unknown |
| platelets | ∙ aka thrombocytes ∙ megakaryocyte -> platelet ∙ cytoplasmic granules contain clotting factors which stain |
| functions of platelets | ∙ everyday repairs to maintain vascular integrity: endothelial growth factors ∙ platelet plug formation after injury ∙ role in fibrin formation |
| petechiation | ∙ RBCs leak out of vascular system into tissues -> small pockets of blood in skin, mucous membranes |
| platelet production | ∙ occurs in the bone marrow, under the influence of thrombopoietin ∙ PPSC -> megakaryocyte |
| clotting factors | ∙ protein component in blood for clotting ∙ liver makes these proteins as a non-metabolic function ∙ complex mechanism involving many clotting factors, Ca2+, vitamin K ∙ clotting is a complex mechanism with many steps - Ca2+ and vitamin K |
| warfarin | ∙ anticoagulant rodenticide, vitamin K agonist; response delayed until substance is metabolized ∙ vitK used by liver -> four different coagulation proteins and clotting factors ∙ petechiation, bleeding into body cavities; treat with vitK |
| thrombocytopenia | ∙ low platelet levels: less than 30,000/microliter ∙ one of the most common bleeding disorders in animals, dangerous in surgery |
| consumptive cytopenia | ∙ lack of platelets due to massive hemorrhage or disseminated intravascular coagulation (secondary to disease) |
| destructive cytopenia | ∙ immune system destroys platelets ∙ platelets become coated with antiplatelet antibodies |
| excessive sequestration | ∙ enlarged spleen (hypersplenism) removes platelets from blood stream and does not destroy them |
| leukocytes | ∙ dead cells collect as pus ∙ granulocytes contain cytoplasmic granules that stain; agranulocytes do not ∙ stain with Wright's stain, "diff quick" ∙ granulocytes, monocytes, lumphocytes ∙ marginal pool: line tissues that may contact foreign substances |
| neutrophil | ∙ granulocyte, but granules don't stain ∙ polymorphonuclear ∙ perform phagocytosis in tissues ∙ quickly aggregate around foreign bodies -> phagocytosis using digestive enzymes |
| eosinophil | ∙ granulocyte, granules stain red ∙ polymorphonuclear ∙ function in tissue response to allergic rxn, anaphylaxis; phagocytosize Ag/Ab complexes, pathogens, parasites in tissues |
| basophil | ∙ granulocyte, granules stain blue ∙ polymorphonuclear ∙ initiate immune and allergic rxns in tissues ∙ like mast cells - granules contain histamine and heparin |
| monocyte | ∙ no cytoplasmic granules ∙ pleiomorphic nuclei, no segments; largest WBC - over twice as large as RBC ∙ performs phagocytosis, processes antigens in tissues or blood; most prevalent in filter organs |
| lymphocytes | ∙ B and T ∙ no granules ∙ mononuclear - massive nuclei ∙ antibody production, immunity in lymphoid tissues and other tissues |
| neutrophil appearance | ∙ many separate nuclear lobes ∙ cytoplasmic granules (won't stain) ∙ most abundant white cell in blood; slightly larger than RBC (bigger depending on species - cats) |
| bands | ∙ immature polymorphonucleocyte - a few will slip into circulation ∙ horseshoe nucleus with no segmentation |
| segs | ∙ mature polymorphonucleocyte - segmented nucleus ∙ 2-5 nucleus lobes, many shapes possible |
| indications of neutrophil levels | ∙ leukocytosis, neutrophilia: bacterial infection ∙ leukopenia, neutropenia: not very common ∙ cats very sensitive to stress response: any stress -> release of neutrophils from marginal pool |
| eosinophil appearance | ∙ two nuclear lobes ∙ granules stain pink and red ∙ about twice the size of RBC or a bit smaller |
| basophil appearance | ∙ granules stain dark/blue ∙ about twice the size of RBC ∙ rarest of granulocytes in circulation |
| monocyte functions | ∙ clean up cellular |
Created by:
junoreg
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