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Vet Phys
Homeostasis
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Define Homeostasis | The maintenance of a constant internal environment. |
| What Is Diffusion? | The passive overall movement of molecules from a region of their high concentration to a region of their low concentration. |
| What Is Osmosis? | The overall movement of water from a dilute to a more concentrated solution through a partially permeable membrane. |
| Why Is The Maintenance Of Osmosis Important For Homeostasis? | If excess water moves into animal cells by osmosis, the cell membrane may rupture, and if too much water moves out of cells they are unable to function correctly. |
| What Are Enzymes and Why Are The Maintenance Of Enzymes Important For Homeostasis? | Enzymes are proteins that speed up chemical reactions in cells. Enzymes need a constant specific temperature in order to function, at different temperatures (or PH) the enzyme will denature (active site will change shape allowing nothing to bind to it). |
| What Does The Body Do To Compensate When Hyperthermic (Too Hot)? | -Sweating (allowing heat to evaporate off the skin). -Panting (drawing cool air into the body). -Vasodilation (blood vessels dilate near the surface of the skin increasing energy loss). |
| How Does The Body Detect Temperature Changes? | Receptors in the skin detect external temperature. Receptors in the hypothalamus detect blood temperature. |
| What Are The Clinical Signs Of Heat Stroke? | Headache, dizziness, inability to concentrate, excessive panting, drooling, lethargy, collapse and vomiting. |
| What Does The Body Do To Compensate When Hypothermic (Too Cold)? | -Shivering (increases rate of respiration, results in energy produced warming surrounding tissues). -Vasoconstriction (blood vessels constrict near skin surface, reducing blood flow and energy loss). |
| What Are The Clinical Signs Of Hypothermia? | Drowsiness, poor coordination, pale gums, collapse. |
| What Is The Normal PH Range In The Body? | 7.35-7.45 |
| What PH Range Is Considered Acidic? | Anything below 7. |
| What PH Range Is Considered Alkaline? | Anything above 7. |
| What Is Acidaemia/Acidosis? | Increase in acid and decrease in base - Lower of blood PH. |
| What Is Alkalaemia/Alkalosis? | Increase in base and decrease in acid - Elevates blood PH. |
| What Does The Alteration Of PH Effect In The Body? | -Osmolarity. -Body fluid volumes. -Enzyme activities. -Transportation. -Membrane potentials. -Nerve and muscle function. |
| If An Animal Is Alkalotic, Do They Have An Increased Or Decreased Amount Of Hydrogen Ions? | Decreased amount. |
| If An Animal Is Acidic, Do They Have An Increased Or Decreased Amount Of Hydrogen Ions? | Increased amount. |
| How Are Hydrogen Ions Produced In The Body? | -From carbon dioxide (carbon dioxide reacts with water producing carbonic acid which splits into hydrogen ions and bicarbonate) -From inorganic acids (normal metabolism of protein). |
| Define Poikilotherm | An animal whose internal temperature varies considerably. Poikilotherms have to survive and adapt to environmental stress. |
| How Is The Body Effected By Acidosis? | -Depression of CNS. -Disorientation. -Coma. -Death. |
| How Is The Body Effected By Alkalosis? | -Excitability of CNS. -Convulsion/tetany. -Death if respiratory muscle effected. |
| What Three Systems Are In Place To Regulate The Acid Base Balance? | -Buffer systems. -Lungs. -Kidneys. |
| How Do Buffer Systems Regulate The Acid Base Balance? | Bicarbonates, phosphates and proteins act as buffers to resist changes in hydrogen ion concentrations in the body. |
| How Do The Lungs Regulate The Acid Base Balance? | Acidosis stimulates breathing, and hence the removal of carbon dioxide (hydrogen ions). |
| How Do The Kidneys Regulate The Acid Base Balance? | During alkalosis bicarbonate is excreted in urine. During acidosis hydrogen ions are excreted and bicarbonate is produced in an attempt to decrease the acidity of the body fluid. |
| What Are The Two Forms Of Acidosis/Alkalosis? | Respiratory Acidosis and Alkalosis = Respiratory system has caused the acidosis/alkalosis. Metabolic Acidosis and Alkalosis = Metabolic system has caused the acidosis/alkalosis. |
| What Causes Respiratory Acidosis? | -Lungs fail to eliminate carbon dioxide as fast as it is being produced. -Concentration of carbon dioxide rises in the body leading to fall in blood PH. -Caused by lung disease, reduced activity in the respiratory centre, and any airway obstructions. |
| What Causes Respiratory Alkalosis? | -Concentration of carbon dioxide falls in the body, leads to a rise in blood PH. -Caused by hyperventilation. -Tends to be self-correcting. |
| What Causes Metabolic Acidosis? | -Increased lactic acid production (heavy exercise). -Reduced renal excretion of H⁺ with kidney disease. -Severe diarrhoea (loss of HCO₃⁻ in faeces). |
| What Causes Metabolic Alkalosis? | -Can be caused by persistent vomiting. -Gastric vomiting causes a loss of gastric acid. -This causes a loss of hydrogen and chloride as hydrochloric acid. |
| What Is Intracellular and Extracellular Fluid? | Extracellular Fluid = Fluid outside of cells, makes up 20% of total body water. Intracellular Fluid = Fluid within cells, makes up 40% of total body water. |
| What Are The Three Types Of Extracellular Fluid? | Interstitial Fluid = Fluid bathing cells (15% of extracellular fluid). Plasma Water = Fluid component of blood (5% of extracellular fluid). Transcellular Fluid = Fluid produced by active secretory mechanisms (cerebrospinal fluid, <1%). |
| What Are The Normal Ways In Which Fluid Is Taken In/Removed From The Body? | -Fluid enters the body through eating and drinking. -Fluid leaves the body through urination defecation, sweat and respiration. |
| What Are The Abnormal Ways In Which Fluid Leaves The Body? | Polyuria, diarrhoea, blood loss and vomiting. |
| What Is The Fluid Maintenance Calculation For A Patient Going On Fluids And What Aspects Make Up This Calculation? | -50mls/kg/day (+ dehydration deficit and any ongoing loses). -50mls = 10mls defecation + 20mls urination + 20mls skin and respiration. |
| What Is The Cortex and Medulla Of The Kidney? | Cortex = Outer layer. Medulla = Inner layer. |
| What Structures Are Found In The Nephrons Of In The Kidney? | -Afferent arteriole. -Efferent arteriole. -Glomerulus. -Bowman's capsule (cortex). -Proximal convoluted tubule (cortex). -Ascending and descending loop of henle (medulla). -Distal convoluted tubule (cortex). -Collecting ducts (medulla). |
| What Are The Functions Of The Kidney? | -Osmoregulation. -Acid-base balance. -Excretion. -Hormone secretion (erythropoietin). -Enzyme secretion (renin). |
| Define Osmoregulation | -Ensures homeostasis of blood contents is maintained, control of water loss and salt loss, prevention of dehydration. -Dehydration will lead to decreased blood pressure (baroreceptors) and increased osmotic pressure (osmoreceptors). |
| What Is The Function Of The Hormone Renin In The Kidneys? | Produced by juxtaglomerular cells in the glomeruli in response to low arterial pressure. Splits angiotensinogen into angiotensin II. |
| What Is The Function Of The Hormone Angiotensinogen In The Kidneys? | Converted to angiotensin I by renin. Angiotensin I is converted into angiotensin II by angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE). |
| What Is The Function Of The Hormone Angiotensin II In The Kidneys? | Causes vasoconstriction of afferent and efferent arterioles. Stimulates release of Aldosterone from adrenal glands. Increases Na+ reabsorption. |
| What Is The Function Of The Hormone Aldosterone In The Kidneys? | Secreted by adrenal cortex, acts on distal convoluted tubule and collecting tubules (less effect) to increase Na+ reabsorption. |
| What Is The Function Of The Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)/ Vasopressin In The Kidneys? | Secreted by posterior pituitary gland, acts on collecting ducts to increase permeability to water. |
| What Is The Function Of Baroreceptors In Osmoregulation? | Found in the walls of the blood vessels, monitor arterial blood pressure. |
| What Is The Function Of Osmoreceptors In Osmoregulation? | Found in the hypothalamus; monitor the osmotic pressure of the plasma, affect the thirst centre of the brain and influence the secretion of ADH. |
| Describe The Process Of How ADH Acts On The Kidneys In Response To Low Blood Pressure/Increased Osmotic Pressure? | -ADH secreted by posterior pituitary gland. -Permeability of collecting ducts increases. -Increases reabsorption of water into the medulla and associated blood vessels. -Volume of extracellular fluid increases, blood pressure rises. |
| Describe The Process Of How Various Hormones Act On The Kidneys In Response To Low Sodium Levels/Low Arterial Blood Pressure? | -Release of renin from the glomeruli. -Conversion of angiotensinogen to angiotensin II. -Vasoconstriction of afferent and efferent arterioles, and increased blood pressure. -Aldosterone also released to act on DCT and stimulate sodium reabsorption. |
| What Is Excreted In Urine? | -Water and ions (osmoregulation). -Nitrogenous waste (urea). -Products of detoxification including hormones, drugs, poisons. |
| What Are The Clinical Signs Of Acute Renal Failure? | -Uraemia (build up of toxins in the blood), signs such as vomiting, diarrhoea, GI haemorrhage, PUPD, anaemia. -Also anorexia, dehydration, oral ulceration, oliguria, anuria or polyuria. -Increased BUN (blood urea nitrogen), creatinine. |
| What Is Seen In A Urine Sample From A Cat With Acute Renal Failure? | -SG: 1.007-1.017. -Proteinuria. |
| What Is Pre-Renal, Intrinsic, and Post-Renal Acute Renal Failure? | Pre-Renal = Inadequate blood supply to kidneys. Intrinsic = Damage to kidney caused by toxins, infectious agent, etc. Post-Renal = Urinary tract obstruction. |
| What Is The Treatment and Nursing Care For Acute Renal Failure? | -Treat cause, for ingestion of toxins induce emesis, activated charcoal, stop nephrotoxic drugs. -Fluid therapy (often hypovolaemic and dehydrated, fluid bolus). -Monitor urine output, urinary catheterisation. |
| What Is The Prognosis For Patients With Acute Renal Failure? | -Depending on cause, poor prognosis if ethylene glycol toxicity or failure to improve azotaemia with 3 days of treatment. -Recovery possible with early aggressive treatment. |
| What Are The Possible Causes Of Chronic Renal Disease? | -Idiopathic. -Polycystic kidney disease (seen commonly in persians). -Neoplasia. -Lymphoma. -Infectious agent (pyelonephritis, feline infectious peritonitis). -Toxins. -Drugs (NSAIDs long term). -Glomerulonephritis. -Hyperthyroidism. |
| What Are The Clinical Signs Of Chronic Renal Disease? | -Polyuria + polydipsia. -Weight loss. -Vomiting. -Reduced appetite. -Lethargy/weakness. -Blindness. -CNS depression, convulsions, coma, death. -Sudden onset deterioration and collapse. |
| What Are The Signs Of Chronic Renal Disease Upon Physical Examination Of The Patient? | -Dull unkempt hair coat. -Halitosis (bad breath). -Mouth + GIT ulceration. -Anaemia (non-regenerative). -Hypertension. -Small kidneys. -Hypertensive retinopathy (detachment of retina). -Hypoproteinaemia (low protein levels in blood). |
| How Is Chronic Renal Disease Diagnosed? | -History and physical examination. -Blood sample (elevated BUN + creatinine, phosphorous), hypokalaemia, hypercalcaemia, non-regenerative anaemia, metabolic acidosis -Urinalysis (SG 1.008-1.012).. -Radiography: small irregular kidneys. -Hypertension. |
| What Causes The PUPD Of Chronic Renal Disease? | -A decrease in functional nephrons causes an increased load on healthy nephrons. -Rapid fluid flow through DCT and collecting ducts. -Leads to water being reabsorbed less efficiently = dilute urine. -Attempt to restore fluid balance through polydipsia. |
| What Causes The Vomiting and GIT Ulceration Of Chronic Renal Disease? | -Decreased glomerular filtration rate leads to increased excretion of waste products creatinine and urea. -Creatinine and urea build up in the blood stream (azotaemia). -Cells damaged by accumulation of toxic products. |
| What Causes The Anaemia Of Chronic Renal Disease? | -Erythropoietin (produced by kidneys) is needed for the formation and maturation of erythrocytes. -Kidney damage means production of erythropoietin decreases. -Therefore reduced formation of erythrocytes. |
| What Causes The Weakness Of Chronic Renal Disease? | -Acid-base imbalance leads to acidosis = weakness. -Large quantities of dilute urine leads to dehydration = weakness. |
| What Causes The Hypertensive Retinopathy Of Chronic Renal Disease? | -60% dogs and 20% cats are hypertensive. -High blood pressure can lead to retinal detachment or retinal haemorrhage. -Sudden onset blindness most commonly seen in elderly cats. |
| How Can Chronic Renal Disease Be Managed? | -Discontinue any potentially nephrotoxic drugs. -Fluid therapy – correct dehydration and/or electrolyte abnormalities. -Manage systemic complications. -Manage any concurrent illnesses. -Renal friendly diets. -Drugs such as anti-emetics. |
| What Is The Prognosis For Patients With Chronic Renal Disease? | -Poor prognosis. -Impossible to regenerate damaged nephrons. -Treatment aimed at slowing disease. -Good management can increase lifespan and quality of life. |
| Define Endocrinology | The study of the endocrine system. |
| What Are Hormones? | Chemical messengers carrying information from endocrine tissues to target cells. |
| What Are The Three Types Of Hormone? | Classical hormones (circulate in blood). Neurohormones (produced by nerve cells). Local hormones (local tissues, do not circulate in blood). |
| What Are The Main Endocrine Organs? | -Hypothalamus. -Pituitary glands. -Thyroid glands. -Parathyroid glands. -Testes/Ovaries -Pancreas. -Adrenal glands. |
| What Is The Role Of The Hypothalamus? | -Regulation of endocrine system. -Controls most of the endocrine glands in the body, mainly via stimulation of the pituitary gland. -Hypothalamic hormones control the secretion of anterior pituitary hormones. |
| What Is The Role Of The Pituitary Gland? | -Situated at the base of the skull. -Consists of 3 parts: the posterior pituitary, anterior pituitary, and intermediate lobe. -The controller of many of the endocrine glands in the body. |
| What Hormones Are Produced By The Posterior Pituitary Gland? | ADH (causing water reabsorption in the kidneys) and oxytocin (increases uterine contractions and elicit milk let down). |
| What Hormones Are Produced By The Anterior Pituitary Gland? | -Thyroid stimulating hormone (act on thyroid gland to release thyroid hormone) -Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (acts on adrenal gland to secrete cortisol) -Follicle stimulating hormone -Luteinizing hormone -Growth hormone -Prolactin |
| How Does The Hypothalamus Regulate The Anterior Pituitary Glands Release Of Hormones? | -By releasing hormones which increase the rate of secretion for the anterior pituitary. -By releasing inhibiting hormones which reduce the rate of secretion from the anterior pituitary. |
| How Does Negative Feedback Work (Endocrinology) | -Pituitary gland acts on other endocrine glands causing secretion of hormones. -Endocrine gland can act on pituitary by releasing inhibiting hormones. -Hypothalamus can detect low and high concentrations of hormones and act on pituitary gland. |
| What Aspects Of Homeostasis Does The Hypothalamus Control? | -Heart rate and blood pressure. -Body temperature. -Fluid and electrolyte balance, including thirst. -Appetite. -Glandular secretion in the stomach and intestines. -Production of substances that influence pituitary release of hormones. |
| What Is The Endocrine Role Of The Pancreas? | -Glucose regulation. -Endocrine cells are concentrated into areas called ‘The Islets of Langerhans’ which are scattered throughout the gland. -Insulin produced by beta cells, glucagon produced by alpha cells. |
| How Does Glucose Regulation In The Pancreas Work When Glucose Levels Are Too High? | -Insulin is released which increases glycogen synthesis (conversion of glucose to glycogen - storage) and decreases gluconeogenesis. -Also increases cell uptake of glucose via Glut-4 proteins. |
| How Does Glucose Regulation In The Pancreas Work When Glucose Levels Are Too Low? | -Glucagon is released to maintain glucose concentrations in the plasma. -Increases glucose release from the liver. -Causes increased degradation of glycogen (glycogenolysis) and increased glucose production from amino acids (gluconeogenesis). |
| What Is The Structure Of The Thyroid Glands? | -Two lobes lying on each side of the proximal trachea, just below the larynx. -Highly vascular structure. -Follicular cells produce thyroid hormone (thyroxin and tri-iodothyronine). -Parafollicular cells produce calcitonin (calcium regulating hormone). |
| What Is The Function Of Thyroid Hormone In Maintaining Homeostasis? | -Increase the animals metabolic rate (resulting in heat production and oxygen consumption). -Needed for normal growth and development of CNS. -Enhanced affect on the sympathetic nervous system. |
| What Is The Structure Of The Parathyroid Glands? | -Multiple small glands (usually 4). -Usually 2 are within the thyroid gland and 2 are external. *Can be very easily damaged during thyroid gland removal* |
| What Is The Function Of The Parathyroid Glands? | -Releases parathyroid hormone = essential role in calcium regulation. -Parathyroid gland is constantly measuring the levels of calcium in the body (in the extracellular fluid). -If the concentration becomes too low then parathyroid hormone is released. |
| How Does Parathyroid Hormone Regulate Calcium Levels? | -Increases calcium release from bone (osteoblasts and osteocytes). -Reabsorption of calcium in the kidneys and reduction of calcium released in urine. -Increased production of vitamin D by the kidneys - increased intestinal absorption of calcium. |
| What Hormones Are Involved In The Female Oestrus Cycle? | -GnRH. -FSH. -LH. -Inhibin. -Oestrogen. -Progesterone. |
| What Is The Function Of The Female Hormone Oestrogen? | -Produced by cells in ovary. -Stimulates follicular growth. -Affects female behaviour to allow mating. -Develops the uterus ready for the development of a fertilised egg. -Causes development of mammary tissue. -Prepares the uterus for parturition. |
| What Is The Function Of The Female Hormone Progesterone? | -Produced by corpus luteum. -Prepares the uterus so it is a suitable environment for embryo development. -Prevents new ovulations. -Uterus is stimulated to grow and develop during pregnancy. -Further growth and development of mammary tissue. |
| What Are The Four Stages Of The Bitches Oestrus Cycle? | 1) Anoestrus 2) Pro-oestrus 3) Oestrus 4) Luteal phase |
| What Structures Make Up The Male Reproductive Anatomy? | -Penis. -Testes. -Scrotum. -Accessory sex glands (only prostrate in male dogs). |
| What Is The Function Of The Testes In Male Reproductive Anatomy? | -Production of spermatozoa (in the seminiferous tubules). -Production of male sex hormones (testosterone by leydig cells). |
| What Hormones Are Involved In Male Reproduction? | -GnRH. -FSH. -LH. -Inhibin. -Testosterone. |
| What Is The Function Of The Male Hormone Testosterone? | -Controls the development of male characteristics. -Causes the development of male behaviours and male mating behaviour. -Supports spermatogenesis (sperm production). |
| What Are The Accessory Sex Glands In Male Reproductive Anatomy? | -The prostate gland. -The ampulla glands. -The vesicular glands. -The bulbourethral glands. |
| What Is The Structure Of The Male Prostrate Gland? | -Positioned within the pelvis. -Surrounds the neck of the bladder and urethra - lobed gland in dogs. -Consists of glandular tissue and partly muscular fibres around the urethra. -Contains ducts which empty into the prostatic portion of the urethra. |
| What Is The Function Of The Male Prostrate Gland? | -Contributes to seminal fluid (volume of watery secretion in ejaculate containing acid phosphatase, citric acid, proteolytic enzymes). Also contains fructose providing energy for sperm. -Size of gland and the volume of fluid regulated by testosterone. |
| What Is The Structure Of The Adrenal Glands? | -Located cranial to the kidneys. -Comprised of glandular tissue with a capsule made up of connective tissue. -Cortex (outer layer) makes up 90% of the total gland mass. -Medulla (middle layer). |
| What Hormones Are Produced By The Adrenal Cortex? | -Adrenocortical hormones: -Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) = Regulates electrolytes in the body, especially sodium and potassium. -Glucocorticoids (cortisol) = Secreted in times of stress. -Adrenal sex steroids (androgens) = Produced in small amounts. |
| What Hormones Are Produced By The Adrenal Medulla? | -Adrenaline and noradrenaline. -Stimulated by neurones from the sympathetic nervous system. |
| What Are The Two Types Of Diabetes Mellitus? | Type 1 (insulin dependant) = Problem with the pancreas and no insulin is being produced. Type 2 (insulin independent) = There is insulin production but there is something in the body stopping that insulin from working. |
| What Clinical Signs Are Seen With Diabetes Mellitus? | -Polyuria. -Polydipsia. -Polyphagia. -Weight loss. -Diabetic cataracts. |
| What Is The Pathophysiology Behind Polyuria In Diabetes Mellitus? | -Kidneys usually absorb glucose from tubular fluid back into the circulation. -Reabsorption capacity of kidneys exceeded when glucose gets too high. -Leads to glucose escaping into the urine (glucosuria). -Has an osmotic effect, pulling water with it. |
| What Is The Pathophysiology Behind Polydipsia In Diabetes Mellitus? | -Secondary effect of the dog producing large volumes of urine (polyuria). -Animal tries to compensate for the large volumes of urine being produced. |
| What Is The Pathophysiology Behind Polyphagia In Diabetes Mellitus? | -High levels of glucose in the blood but tissues are being starved due to no insulin. -Insulin = role in transporting glucose to tissues. -Reduced uptake of glucose by the cells. -Animal feels hungry as satiety centres in brain cannot access glucose. |
| What Is The Pathophysiology Behind Diabetic Cataracts In Diabetes Mellitus? | -Because of the hyperglycaemia sugar can be deposited into the lens of the eye. -This deposition of sorbitol and fructose into the lens will lead to gradual blindness. |
| What Is Pyometra? | -Accumulation of pus within the uterus. -Associated with cystic endometrial hyperplasia (after successive progesterone cycles) and accumulation of fluid within the uterus. -This may then become infected with bacteria. |
| What Are The Risk Factors Of Pyometra? | -Intact Bitches. -Nulliparous females (ones that have not been bred). -Mean age: 9.5 years. -Closely associated with specific times of the reproductive cycle - 4-8 weeks after oestrus. -Breed disposition. |
| What Are The Clinical Signs Of Pyometra? | -Polydipsia. -Anorexia. -Purulent vulval discharge (open pyo). -Collapse. |
| Why Is Pyometra More Likely To Occur During The Luteal Stage Of The Bitches Oestrus Cycle? | -Progesterone hormone predominates causing thickening of the wall of the uterus and increased secretions from the uterine glands. Cervix will also be closed. -Can lead to cystic hyperplasia = results in difficulty clearing any bacteria in uterus = pyo. |
| What Are The Treatment Options For Pyometra? | -Ovariohysterectomy (spay). *Uterus very likely to haemorrhage, look out for signs of anaemia* |
| What Is Hyperthyroidism? | -Increased production of thyroid hormone. -Usually caused by a benign tumour of the thyroid gland. |
| What Are The Clinical Signs Of Hyperthyroidism? | -Weight loss. -Ravenous appetite. -Hyperactivity. -Tachycardia. -Unkempt coat. -Large pupils. -Potential retinal detachment. |
| What Is The Pathophysiology Behind Polyphagia In Hyperthyroidism? | -Increased levels of thyroid hormone produced leads to an increased metabolic rate. -This will cause weight loss but the animal will also have a ravenous appetite. |
| What Is The Pathophysiology Behind Hyperactivity In Hyperthyroidism? | -Thyroid hormone excess leads to a very high metabolic rate. -Excess thyroid hormone also causes an enhanced affect on the sympathetic nervous system so cat may have very large pupils and have behavioural changes. |
| What Is The Pathophysiology Behind Tachycardia In Hyperthyroidism? | -Because of the high metabolic rate the heart must work harder. -Changes occur within the heart and its rate must increase to compensate. -This leads to increased blood pressure which may lead to retinal haemorrhage and detachment. |
| What Are The Treatment Options For Hyperthyroidism? | -Medical management. -Surgery to remove abnormal gland. *Care not to damage parathyroid glands - results in hypocalcaemia* |
| What Are The Clinical Signs Of Hypocalcaemia? | -Involuntary muscle contractions. -Seizures. -Weakness. -Ataxia. |
| What Causes Prostrate Gland Enlargement In Dogs? | -Also known as benign prostatic hyperplasia. -Caused by the influence of testosterone and its active metabolites. -Prostatic cysts may occur secondary. |
| What Are The Clinical Signs Of Prostrate Gland Enlargement? | -Tenesmus (straining during defecation or urination). -Haematuria. -Haemospermia. -Bleeding. -Serosanguinous urethral/preputial discharge. -May show no discharge. |
| What Are Sertoli Cell Tumours? | -Make up 44% of testicular tumours. -Most common tumour that develops in retained testes. -Size can vary, between 1-12cm. -Can be endocrinologically active - secrete oestrogen. -Rarely spread. |
| What Are The Clinical Signs Of A Sertoli Cell Tumour? | -Gynaecomastia (mammary gland development). - Attraction of male dogs. - Bilateral symmetrical alopecia. - Pendulous prepuce. |
| What Is Cushing's Syndrome? | -Hyperadrenocorticism. -Can either be caused by a pituitary or adrenal tumour. |
| What Are The Clinical Signs Of Cushing's Syndrome? | -Polyuria/Polydipsia. -Polyphagia. -Abdominal distension (pot-belly). -Exercise intolerance. -Alopecia. -Hyperpigmentation. -Thin skin. -Panting. |
| What Is The Pathophysiology Of Cushing's Syndrome? | PUPD = cortisol stops ADH acting at the kidney so animal can’t concentrate their urine. Polyphagia = affect of cortisol. Abdominal distension = liver enlargement. Exercise intolerance = muscle wasting. Alopecia = Growth phase of hair inhibited. |
| What Are Some Advantages Of Neutering? | -Helps with behavioural problems/aggression. -Removes risk of some diseases/conditions. -Reduces male roaming behaviour. -Reduced dog-dog aggression. -Reduces unwanted litters. -Stops female bleeding and risk of pyo. -Prevent phantom pregnancies. |
| What Are Some Disadvantages Of Neutering? | -Potential for fear aggression due to lack of testosterone. -Delay in growth plate closure and obesity. -Failure to develop male characteristics. -Increased risk of osteosarcomas (some breeds). -Phantom pregnancies, if neutered at wrong time. |
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