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histo II
Exam II Goff Digestion
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What type of epithelium is in the rumen? | Stratified |
| Movement of sodium into the lumen drives absorption of what 3 things? | glucose, amino acids, minerals |
| What does crypt cells secrete actively? passively? | Actively - Cl Passively - Na & water |
| Absorption of Chloride is by what process? | Apical = down concentration gradient |
| Chloride basolateral absorption is different in different parts of the intestine how? | Upper intestine - passive absoprtion (Cl- follows Na) Ileum/Colon - active trasnport of Cl in exchange for HCO1 and Na ion |
| Potassium absorption is in what cells? | villus cells primarily of the ileum |
| How does K be absorbed? | paracellulary across tight junctions specific K-ATPase also pump K across brush border in casses of low diet K |
| What pumps Ca into intercellular space | Ca ATPase pump |
| this type of protien is very high in quality and formed from ammonia and carbon skeletons by the rumen | rumen degradable protein |
| protein that escapes microbial destruction is known as | RUP - rumen undegradable protein |
| RUP + bacterial protein = ? | Metabolizable protein |
| Healthy rumen pH is what? | ~ 6 - 6.5 |
| Qhat are some sources of N for a ruminant? | NPN feeds (urea) de-amination of degradable proteins urea recycling through rumen wall and salivary secretion |
| 3 reasons to feed fat? | 1 - increased palatability for carnivores and omnivores 2 - efficiently forms adipose 3 - needed for chylomicron for fat soluble vitamin absorption |
| What cells absorb Na, Cl and water? | villus cells |
| What is the primary method of absorption of B-vitamins? | transcellularly |
| What artery supplies the stomach and spleen? | celiac artery |
| What does the cranial mesenteric a. supply? | S.I., pancreas, proximal colon |
| what does the posterior mesenteric a. supply? | majority of colon |
| What is the venous drainage system? | portal vein, liver sinusoids, hepatic vein, vena cava |
| What increases gut blood flow (4) | - vasodilator hormones ( gastrin, secretin CCK) - vasodilator kinins (shunting through capillaries) - low oxygen = high adenosine - prostaglandins E& I |
| What effect does parasympathetic NS control have on the gut blood flow? | increased gut activity, increased blood flow |
| What effect does sympathetic NS control have on gut blood flow? | decreases blood flow directly (exercise and shock) |
| What is the conclusion from the capon study? | something in the testicle is necessary for male characteristic stimulation |
| What is a hormone? | signaling molecule in blood stream, neural axons or local diffusion |
| what type of molecule is a hormone? | protein, peptide, catecholamine, steroid, or iodinated tyrosine derivative |
| What does a hormone do at the target tissue? | modulate metabolic pathway, regulate without itself contributing energy or initiating the process |
| what is the function of the endocrine system? | work with the nervous system to maintain homeostasis. (regulate metabolism, fluid status, growth, sexual development and reproduction) |
| What endocrine route binds to a receptor on a cell from which they were secreted? | autocrine |
| What endocrine route binds to a receptor on a cell near the cell they were secreted from? | paracrine |
| What endocrine route enters the blood stream and binds to a receptor far from the cell it was secreted from? | endocrine |
| What route is secreted from a neuron? | neurocrine |
| What are the categories of hormones? | peptide and protein, catecholamine, thyroid, steroid |
| peptide and protein hormones are secreted where? | golgi apparatus by exocytosis |
| Peptide and protein hormones are stored where? | secretory granules of golgi |
| How are protein and peptide hormones synthesized? | DNA--> mRNA--> preprohormone --> prohormone --> hormone |
| What is an example of peptides? | vasopresin, oxytocin, glucagon |
| what are some protein hormones? | insulin, growth hormone, prolactin |
| What are some examples of catecholamine hormones? | epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine |
| How is catecholamine hormones synthesized? | tyrosine |
| Where is catecholamine hormones stored? | secretory granules |
| How are catecholamine hormones released | exocytosis |
| What are some examples of thyroid hormones? | thyroxine, triiodothyronine |
| What are thyroid hormones syntehsized from? | tyrosine and iodide |
| where are thyroid hormones stored? | extracellularly in follicles of the thyroid gland |
| How are thyroid hormones secreted? | requires enzymatic release |
| What are some examples of steroid hormones? | cortisol, aldosterone, androgens, vitamin D |
| steroid hormones are synthesized from what? | cholesterol |
| What is the dominant mechanism of regulating hormone secretion and release? | negative feedback |
| What are the two stages of the negative feedback loop? | stimulation and suppression |
| What are the 3 causes of diarrhea? | Malabsorption, hypersecretion, osmotic |
| Water is not lost from body water stores in same proportions. Plasma % is lost ________ than ECF loss | greater |
| ECF loss of water is _______ than intracellular water loss | greater |
| what is another word for circulation collapse? | shock |
| does shock occur before/after intracellular water is changed/effected? | BEFORE |
| What diarrhea cause is due to digestive enzymatic insufficiency? | maldigestive |
| In this cause of diarrhea ingest remains in the lumen and due to osmotic pull the water content in the stool is increased | maldigestive |
| Where is maldigestive diarrhea most likely to occur? | small intestine |
| A loss of villous cells is seen with what cause of diarrhea? | malabsorptive |
| With this cause of diarrhea you see bacterial/viral damage causing leaky membranes, defeating pump and graidents | malabsorptive |
| What two species are you most likely to see rotavirus in? | calf, piglet |
| in this virus the tip of the villous is destroyed | rotavirus |
| rotavirus and TGE are causative agents of what form of diarrhea? | malabsorptive |
| with this disease/virus the animal can not digest or absorb disaccharides or small peptides and water is leaving = dilute hyperosmotic chyme | rotavirus - malabsorptive |
| what does TGE stand for? what species does it involve? what cause of diarrhea is it? | transmissible gastroenteritis coronavirus of pigs - malabsorptive |
| with TGE what structure is affected and how? | all of the villus cells are destroyed |
| panleukopenia and parvo virus are affiliated with what diarrhea cause? | malabsortive |
| what method do parvoviruses take on the small intestine? | wipe out crypt cel, hemmorrhage |
| What diarrhea cause is cryptosporidiosis linked with? | malabsorptive |
| this diarrhea causative agent is a single cell eukaryotic parasite that works by attacking ileal and proximal colon cells | cryptosporidiosis |
| How do bacterial infections lead to diarrhea? | grow into/thru mucosa - loss of tight cell junctions or exposed intestinal space |
| On necropsy you see fibrosis and scarring of mucosa from immune response that obliterates most absorptive function over time. This is a cow that was severly emaciated and dehydrated - what disease? | Johnes/paratuberculosis |
| during malabsorption what is the colon's role? | compensation - colon still absorbs Na and water |
| What do the bacteria in the colon do? | break down sugars to VFA, absorb VFA (depends on age of animal) |
| dark, tarry looking blood | melena |
| is melena digested/undigested blood? | digested |
| where does melena originate from? | upper small intestine |
| bright red blood is known as what? | frank blood |
| where does frank blood originate? | lower colon |
| this cause of diarrhea has excessive chloide secreting activity on the crypt cells and reduced activity of villus cells | secretory diarrhea |
| What two molecules follow chloide into the lumen? | water and Na |
| what triggers the opening of chloride channels on apical surfaces letting chloride into the lumen? | Ca++ released from intracellular stores into the cytosol |
| What normally modulates secretion on as-needed basis based on osmolarity and stetch receptors? | parasympathetics |
| what is the effect of prsotaglandins E2 and I2? where are they produced? | produced within submucosa and mucosa, bind to receptors on crypt cells and acdivate adenyl cyclase --> increased cAMP in cells |
| the inflammatory response plays a role in what cause of diarrhea? | secretory - mucous secretion by goblet cells - mucousy diarrhea |
| do toxins damage the enterocyte? | no |
| toxins play a role in what cause of diarrhea? | secretory |
| Enterotxigenic Eschericia coli and Vibrio cholerae are causative agents for what type of diarrhea? | secretory |
| voluminous green water like diarrhea is what type? | secretory |
| Secretory diarrhea blocks the absorption of what? | Na/Cl and water |
| what is the goal of oral rehydration therapy? | provide electrolytes to restore circulation and treat acidosis |
| What type of diarrhea are the lumen contents not absorbed adequately or are non-abosrbable | Osmotic diarrhea |
| What type of diarrhea draws water into the gut and keeps it there in an attempt to motain proper osmoality? | Osmotic diarrhea |
| What is the goal for osmolarity of upper GI and colon | 300 mOs |
| milk of magnesia, epsom salts and prune juice have what affect on absorption? | poorly absorbed |
| What happens if you feed neonates large meals 1-2 times a day instead of the small meals throughout the day (8-10x)their gut prefers? | volume overwhelms digestive enzymes |
| The overwhelming of lactase to digest lactose is a common precursor to what type of diarrhea? | osmotic |
| Is osmotic diarrhea by itself harmful to the animal? | No, animal just needs extra water intake - loosing nutrients, not most effective |
| Cow manure with lots of bubbles is often a sign of what? | incomplete fermentation of starches, rumen acidosis |
| If a cow has hind gut fermentation happening due to too many starches making it through the rumen what would you likely see? | bubbly manure |
| Presence of what in the diet will reduce feed intake especially in neonates and poultry? | oligosaccharides |
| What effect do oligosaccharides have on feeding? | reduced intake |
| What feed ingredient has a high percentage of oligosaccharides? | soybean meal |
| What is the significance of the bird having a short digestive tract? | Lighter for flying |
| What structure in the bird is for storing food and seen as a dilation of the esophagus? | crop |
| What structure of the bird is responsible for moistening the food and beginning fermentation? | crop |
| The glandular stomach of the bird is what? | proventriculus |
| What bird structure secretes HCL and digestive enzymes | proventriculus |
| what is another name for the ventriculus | gizzard |
| What structure of the bird is the muscular section specialized for grinding? | ventriculus = gizzard |
| What structure in the bird has a hard keratin lining? what is its purpose? | ventriculus = gizzard, for grinding and protection from acid |
| What purpose does the bird have for having two ceca? | hindgut fermentation in some species - not as efficient as horse/rabbit Renal ureters empty here |
| What is special about bird poop? | uric acid is mixed with feces |
| Is the rate of passage slow or fast in a chicken? | FAST 2.5hrs 4-6hrs |
| What structure is responsible for the control of feed intake? (brain structure) | hypothalamus - satiety center |
| A lesion of the lateral hypothalamus would destroy what brain center? | feeding center |
| what enzyme stimulates the appetite | neuropeptide Y |
| What stimulates neuropeptide Y? (2) | glucocorticoids and androgens |
| WHat inhibits neuropeptide Y (3) | insulin, estrogens, LEPTIN |
| Why is how much the animal is willing to eat important? | limit to productivity is how much animal will eat (think milking dairy cow, or growing feeder animal) |
| How does glucose metabolism affect food intake? | Blood glucose drops = hungry |
| What affect does insulin have on feeling satieted? | Quick Insulin increase= decreased blood glucose = hungry |
| How do protein and fat affect insulin? | not quick glucose surge = not quick insulin surge - feel full longer |
| What causes CCK release into the blood? | high fat/amino acid meal |
| What releases CCK where? | enteroendocrine cells in duodenum |
| What affect does CCK have on satiety? | in hypothalamus signals satiety |
| What secretes Ghrelin? | enteroendocrine cells in stomach |
| When is Ghrelin secreted? | when stomach is empty |
| What is another location where Ghrelin is made? | pancreas |
| What affect does Ghrelin have on appetitie? | stimulates appetite when reaches hypothalamus |
| Where is peptide YY made? | ileum, colon |
| What affect foes peptide YY have? | signals satiety in hypothalamus |
| What stimulates production of peptide YY? | ingesta reaching ileum/colon |
| What produces leptin? what affect does this have on hunger? | adipose produces leptin, signals satiety |
| If you are like a mouse and genetically deficient in leptin what happens? | Morbidly obese |
| What affect do high zinc diets have on copper? | inadequate copper |
| What dictates iron absorption? | body needs |
| For adults where should your concern be concerning iron? | toxicity, diets generally supply adequate iron for adults |
| What is maintenance of plasma Mg concentration dependent on? | daily dietary Mg absorption |
| Where is Mg absorbed? | SI in young rumenants, rumen, reticulum of adults |
| What affect can penicillin type of antibiotics have on bacteria? | Kill off gram positives |
| What is the harm of not having gram positive bacteria in the gut? | allow E.coli overgrowth |
| What is the oxygen level in the upper small intestine? | high |
| What is the effect of high levels of oxygen? | does not allow the growth of strict anaerobes |
| What type of bacteria live in the small intestine? | faculatative anaerobes |
| Can Clostridia live in the upper small intestine? | Not normally - strict anaerobe |
| What is the oxygen level of the lower intestine and colon? | lower |
| What type of bacteria live in the lower intestine and colon? | some anaerobes |
| What specific feed benefit do ruminants/hind-gut fermented get? | able to obtain energy from beta-linked polysacharides |
| Can horses and cows live strictly on forgaes? | YES |
| What is special about ruminants diet? What can they utilize others can not? | Can convert diet N into high quality protein |
| Which of the following is not a benefit to a cow: bacteria, protozoa, yeast, fungi | Protozoa |
| What does cellulolytic bacteria do? | break down beta linkages of cellulose and hemicellulose |
| What are some examples of cellylolytic bacteria? | bacteroides, ruminococcus, butyrovibrio |
| What is ruminococcus and bacteroides? | cellylolytic bacteria |
| What do amylolytic bacteria do? | break down starches to sugars |
| What type of bacteria are amylolytic? | Gram positive |
| What type of bacteria are cellylolytic? | strict anaerobes |
| Streptococcus and Ruminobacter are examples of what? | Amylolytic bacteria |
| What is the end product of amylolytic bacteria and what can this cause? | lactate --> rumen acidosis |
| What do lactate utilizers do? | adapt rumen for large amounts of high energy fed = starch |
| How do lactate utilizers work? | destroy lactate as it is formed |
| What are the bacteria called that destroy lactate as it is formed in an attempt to adapt the rumen for consumption of lots of high energy feeds such as starch? | lactate utilizers |
| What are two examples of lactate utilizers? | selenomonas, megasphaera |
| What are selenomonas and megasphaera examples of? | Lactate utilizers |
| What happens to the most digestible carbohydrates that reach the rumen/colon? | fermented into VFAs |
| What is produced in higher quantities by ruminants when on high energy diets? | VFAs! |
| Proportionally what specific VFA increases with high energy diet? | proprionate |
| Why is proprionate an important VFA? | gluconeogenic precursor |
| What are the three smallest VFAs? | Acetate (1 bond), propionate (2), butyrate (3) |
| Horse vs. Cow: Who gets more energy from high grain diets n why? | Horse, absorbs simple sugars in SI Cow would miss out on the simple sugars because the bacteria get it |
| Horse vs. Cow: Who gets more energy from an all forage diet? | Cow - rumen has slower transit then colon = more absorption |
| Horse vs. Cow: Who gets the advantage of high quality protiens from the diet? | Horse - absorbed in SI - Cow - bacteria get first |
| Horse vs. Cow: Who gets more protein from an all forage diet? | COW - horse colon doesn't absorb a.a. |
| What is the process allowing hindgut fermenters to take advantage of microbial protein and vitamins produced in the colon? | coprophagy |
| Where does a cow get the majority of its protein? | Microbial (40-60%) |
| What are the types of protein a cow has available to it? | Microbial (40-60%), RUP (30-40%), Endogenous (5-10%) |
| Can you feed a browser(deer) like a regular ruminant (Cow)? | No would develop rumen acidosis or starve |
| What is different about the browsers and cows in their rumen digesta? | Browsers don't have layering in the rumen |
| Compare the rate of passage of browsers/ruminants | Browsers have faster rate of passage through rumen |
| Do browsers need to eat more/less then traditional ruminants? | MORE, get less energy derived from structural CHO due to faster rate of passage |
| What type of stomach do camelids have? | pseudoruminat = 3 chambers with unique saccules in C1 and C2 |
| Where does a camelid's spit come from? | regurgitated from C1 EWWWW |
| Are camelids more/less prone to bloat then traditional ruminants (cow) - why? | Less - eructate more often then cows |
| Where does the "true" stomach of the camelid -What portion is glandular? | C3 compartment |
| How does camelid fermentation differ from cow? | No layering of ingesta = continuous fermentation process |
| What determines the digestion rate of a reptile? | Body temperature |
| If a reptile is VERY cold can it eat?digest? | Yes, can eat, has to warm up to digest (need enzymes!) |
| What type of stomach does a crocodile have and why do we care? Why is it pertinant to this course? | two sections |
| What is special about the first section of a crocodile stomach? | Muscular contains gastroliths to grind similar to bird gizzard |
| What does the 2nd section of a crocodile stomach do? | produce acid |
| What is SUPER special about the crocodile (2nd section of stomach) | Produces strongest acid of species - digests bones, hides, and more oh my! |
| Whats the key to remembering monkey/ape stomachs? | diet dictates shape |
| Concerning monkeys - those that eat leads must have what? | enlarged colon to use structural CHOs compartamentalized stomach = microbial fermentation + acid stomach |
| What is important to remember about Zoo carnivores feedings? | Need calcium, vitamins etc from liver ingesta and bone of other animals IN ADDITION to raw meat |
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