Tissue level of organization, skeletal system, joints, bone tissue
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| Tissue | group of similar cells with the same embryonic origin & function
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| Histology | science that studies tissues
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| Four main body tissues | 1) epithelial tissue, 2) connective tissue, 3) muscle tissue, 4) nervous tissue
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| Epithelial tissues (epithelia) | covers surfaces: lines hollow organs, cavities, ducts, forms glands; avascular: nutrition and gas exchange through diffusion; high rate of cell divisions, constant renewal of epithelial cells
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| Function of epithelial tissue | protection, filtration, secretion, absorption, excretion
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| Main types of epithelial tissue | 1) glandular, 2) covering and lining
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| Cell junctions | contact points between neighboring cells; Tight, Adherens Junctions, Desmosomes, Hemidesmosomes, GAP
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| Tight junctions | prevent passage of substances between cells
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| 2. Adherens Junctions, Desmosomes, Hemidesmosomes | strong, prevent separation of cells
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| GAP Junctions | allow cells to communicate, exchange ions
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| Apical/free surface | exposed to exterior, body cavity, lumen of organ
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| basal surface | Attached to adjacent connective tissue
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| lateral surface | face adjacent cells
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| basement membrane | Attachment between basal surface & underlying connective tissue
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| Classification of covering & lining epithelia | 1) According to cell shape, 2) According to arrangement of cells into layers
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| Classification of covering & lining epithelia according to cell layers | simple (single layer), stratified (two or more layers), pseudostratified (single layer appearing stratified)
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| Classification of covering & lining epithelia according to cell shape | Squamous (flat), cuboidal (cuboidal or hexagonal), columnar (tall, cylindrical), transitional (changeable shape, able to expand)
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| Glandular epithelia | exocrine, endocrine glands
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| Gland | one cell or group of specialized epithelial cells that secrete substances
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| Exocrine glands | secrete products into ducts, body surface or hollow organ
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| Endocrine glands | secrete products (hormones) into extracellular fluid, diffusion into blood
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| Connective tissue | most abundant tissue in body, binds, supports, strengthens, protects, insulates, separates, stores energy, transports
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| Structure of connective tissue | 1) cells, 2) matrix
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| Matrix of connective tissue | extracellular, fibers, ground substance
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| Cells of connective tissue | blasts, cytes, different types of white blood cells
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| Blasts | immature, high rate of cell divisions, metabolically active, produce matrix (fibroblasts, chondroblasts, osteoblasts)
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| Cytes | mature, reduced ability to divide and produce matrix (fibrocytes, chondrocytes, osteocytes)
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| Ground substance of matrix | between cells & fibers, fluid, semifluid, gelatinous, calcified; stores water, facilitates exchange of substances and metabolism; contains complex polysaccharides and proteins
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| Fibers of matrix | collagen, elastic, reticular
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| Collagen fibers of matrix | strong and flexible, most abundant protein in the body (25%)
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| Elastic fibers of matrix | thinner, elastic; in skin, blood vessels and lungs
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| Reticular fibers of matrix | fine bundles (stroma); supporting framework of many organs
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| Classification of mature connective tissue | Loose, dense, cartilage, bone, liquid
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| Loose connective tissue | soft, areolar connective tissue, adipose tissue, reticular connective tissue
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| Dense connective tissue | rough, dense regular, dense irregular and elastic connective tissue
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| Cartilage of connective tissue | hyaline, elastic and fibrocartilage
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| Liquid connective tissue | blood, lymph
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| Muscular tissue | 1) skeletal, 2) cardiac, 3) smooth
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| Tissue repair | replacement of worn-out, damaged or dead cells; from stroma, from parenchyma
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| Tissue repair from stroma | supporting connective tissue, fibrosis
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| Fibrosis | scar tissue formation
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| Tissue repair from parenchyma | functioning part of tissue/organ, regeneration
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| Factors affecting ability to regenerate | 1) type of tissue, 2) severity of injury, 3) status of patient, 4) amount of blood supply
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| Membranes | 1) epithelial 2) connective tissue
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| Epithelial membranes | composed of epithelium and underlying connective tissue; 1) Mucous, 2) serous, 3) cutaneous
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| Mucous membrane | lining of body cavities open to exterior, underlying connective tissue (lamina propria), goblet and other cells produce mucous
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| Serous membrane | lining of cavities not open to exterior, simple squamous epithelia and thin layer of areolar CT, parietal (lines cavity) & visceral (lines organs)
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| Serous fluid | between sheets of serous membrane
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| cutaneous membrane | skin
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| Connective tissue membranes | composed of connective tissue only; synovial
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| Synovial membrane | lining of freely moveable cavities, production of synovial fluid
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| Bones in human body | 206, most paired
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| Types of bones | long, short, flat, sesmoid, irregular, sutural
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| Sesmoid bones | in some tendons; protection, improvement of mechanical advantage at joint; variable, not always completely ossified, very small except for patellae
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| Bone surface markings | structural features adapted for specific functions, not present at birth, develop in response to forces applied to bones
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| Forces applied to bones | tension, compression
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| Tension | deposition of new bone, raised rough areas
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| Compression | results in depressed areas
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| Types of surface markings | depressions & openings, processes
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| Bones in axial skeleton | 80 bones
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| Skull bones | 22, 8 cranial, 14 facial
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| Cranial bones | Frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, sphenoid, ethmoid
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| Facial bones | Nasal, maxilla, zygomatic, lacrimal, palatine, vomer, mandible, inferior nasal conchae
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| Orbits | contain eyeballs and associated structures, 7 bones form each of them
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| Nasal septum | perpendicular to plate of ethmoid bone
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| Sutures | immovable joints found only between skull bones, moveable in children, coronal, sagittal, lambdoid, squamous
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| Paranasal sinuses | cavities in some bones of skull; lined with mucous membranes continuous with lining of nasal cavity (frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, maxillary)
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| Fontanels | areas of unossified mesenchyme between cranial bones of infants, disappear after 24 months
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| Hyoid bone | doesn't articulate with any other bone, connected with the rest of skeleton by ligaments and muscles
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| Vertebral column | spine, backbone, 26 vertebrae
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| Normal curves | primary (thoracic & sacral), secondary (cervical & lumbar)
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| Abnormal curves | kyphosis (hunchback), lordosis (sway back), scoliosis
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| Intervertebral discs | between vertebrae, annulus fibrosus, nucleus pulposus
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| Vertebrae | body, arch (lamina), processes (transverse, spinous, articular), vertebral foramen & notches, facets
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| Regions of vertebral column | cervical (7), thoracic (12), lumbar (5), sacrum, coccyx
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| Cervical region | transverse foramen & process, atlas (C1), axis (C2, dens), vertebral prominens (C7)
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| Thoracic region | transverse process, body's
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| Lumbar region | large body's
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| Sacrum | base, apex, fused 5 sacral vertebrae
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| Coccyx | fused 4 coccygeal vertebrae
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| Thorax (thoracic cage) | Sternum, ribs
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| Sternum | manubrium, angle, body
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| Ribs | 12 pairs, 7 true, 5 false, 2 floating
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| Appendicular skeleton | pectoral (shoulder) girdle, pelvic (hip) girdle, upper extremity, lower extremity
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| Pectoral (shoulder) girdle | clavicle, scapula
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| Clavicle | sternal end, acromial end
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| Scapula | body, borders (medial, lateral), angles (superior, inferior), processes, fossae, glenoid cavity
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| Upper extremity | 30 bones, humerus, ulna, radius, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges
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| Pelvic girdle | coxal bones (ilium, ischium, pubis)
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| Lower extremity | 30 bones, femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsals, talus, calcaneus, metatarsals, phalanges
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| joints | articulations
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| structural classification of joints | space between articulating bones and type of binding connective tissue (fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial)
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| Functional classification of joints | degree of movement; synarthrosis (immoveable), amphiarthrosis (slightly moveable), diarthrosis (moveable)
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| Fibrous joints | lack synovial cavity, connected by fibrous connective tissue, (sutures, syndesmoses, gomphoses)
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| Sutures | synarthroses (become bone); thin layer of connective tissue, irregular, interlocking edges, between bones of skull
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| Syndesmoses | amphiarthroses, fibrous connective tissue, space between bones (little)
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| Gomphoses | synarthroses, dentoalveolar joints (teeth), socket & periodontal ligaments
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| Cartilaginous joints | lack synovial cavity; connected by hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage (synchondroses, symphyses)
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| Synchondroses | synarthroses, epiphyseal plates (first rib & manubrium)
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| Symphyses | amphiarthroses, covered by hyaline cartilage, connected by disc of fibrocartilage, midline of body
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| Synovial joints | Diarthroses, synovial cavity, articular cartilage, capsule, synovial fluid, articular discs, bursae, tendon sheaths
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| Articular cartilage | hyaline, reduces friction, absorbs shock
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| Articular capsule | 1) fibrous capsule 2) synovial membrane
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| Fibrous capsule | dense fibrous, irregular & regular connective tissue
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| Synovial membrane | areolar connective tissue with elastic fibers; may include articular fat pads
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| Synovial fluid | viscous, clear-pale yellow, produced by synovial membrane, lubrication, gas & nutrient, exchange of articular cartilage, contains phagocytic cells
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| Articular discs | menisci, made of fibrocartilage, in some joints and not others
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| Bursae | pad-like structures; connective tissue lined with synovial membrane producing synovial
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| tendon sheaths | tube-like bursae; protection of tendons
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| Types of synovial joints | planar, hinge, pivot, condyloid, saddle, ball & socket
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| Factors affecting range of motions | 1) structure/shape of articulating bones 2) strength/tension of joint ligaments 3) arrangement/tension of muscles 4) contact of soft parts 5) hormones 6) use/disuse/aging/disease
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| Flexion | decrease in angle at joint
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| extension | increase in angle at joint
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| hyperextension | increase in angle at joint beyond anatomical position
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| abduction | movement away from midline
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| adduction | movement toward midline
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| circumduction | multi-planel, flexion, extension, hyperextension, adduction, abduction, rotation
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| Rotation | around long axis of bone
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| elevation | upward movement
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| depression | downward movement
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| protraction | movement anteriorly
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| retraction | movement posteriorly
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| inversion | soles medially
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| eversion | soles laterally
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| dorsiflexion | toes toward knees
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| plantar flexion | pointed toes
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| supination | palms up
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| pronation | palms down
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| opposition | thumb moves across palm to touch tips of fingers
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| Functions of bone tissue | support, protection, assistance in movement, mineral homeostasis, hemopoiesis (red bone marrow), triglyceride storage (yellow bone marrow)
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| Structure of bone | diaphysis, epiphyses, metaphyses, articular cartilage, periosteum, medullary cavity, endosteum
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| Diaphysis | shaft/body
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| Epiphyses | distal and proximal ends
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| Metaphyses | connections between diaphysis and epiphyses, include epiphyseal plate (becomes epiphyseal line)
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| Articular cartilage | thin layer of hyaline cartilage covering articulating part of epiphysis
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| Periosteum | dense irregular connective tissue surrounding bone surface (protection, growth in thickness)
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| Medullary cavity | in diaphysis; contains yellow bone marrow
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| Endosteum | membrane (connective tissue & bone forming & bone reabsorbing cells) lining medullary cavity
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| Bone histology | type of connective tissue, cells & extracellular matrix (ground substance, fibers)
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| Types of cells in bone | osteogenic, osteocytes, osteoblasts, osteoclasts
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| Osteogenic bone cells | stem cells along inner periosteum & endosteum; undergo cell divisions
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| Osteoblasts | bone-building cells; synthesize collagen, initiate calcification of extracellular matrix
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| Osteocytes | mature bone cells, maintain bone tissue
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| Osteoclasts | bone-resorbing (breaking/dissolving) cells (part of normal bone metabolism – remodeling)
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| Extracellular matrix | 25% water, 25% collagen fibers, 50% mineral salts (calcium phosphate, calcium hydroxide, calcium carbonate, magnesium, fluoride, potassium, and sulfate; calcification
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| Calcification | deposition of minerals (responsible for hardness) in framework of collagen fibers (responsible for flexibility and tensile strength)
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| Compact bone tissue | 80%, strongest form of bone, under periosteum of all bones, diaphysis of long bones
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| Structural units of bone tissue | osteons (haversian systems)
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| Osteons (haversian systems) | aligned along lines of stress, change according to function, central canal, perforating (Volkmann’s) canals, concentric lamellae, lacunae, canaliculi, circumferential & interstitial lamellae
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| Perforating (Volkmann’s) canals | connection with periosteum
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| Concentric lamellae | rings of calcified extracellular membrane
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| Lacunae | spaces containing osteocytes
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| Canaliculi | tiny channels containing processes of osteocytes and extracellular fluid
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| Interstitial lamellae | fragments of older osteons
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| Circumferential lamellae | encircle bone beneath periosteum
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| Spongy bone tissue | 20%, no osteons, lamellae arranges in trabeculae, spaces filled with red bone marrow, epiphyses of long bones
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| Blood and nerve supply (bones) | bones have rich blood supply, good healing potential, periosteum is rich in sensory nerves, nerves & veins accompany arteries, (periosteal, nutrient arteries)
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| Periosteal arteries | enter through many perforating (Volkmann’s) canals
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| Nutrient arteries | enters through nutrient foramen (near center of diaphysis)
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| Bone formation | osteogenesis (ossification), replacement of template made of connective tissue by osseous tissue, sixth week of embryonic development (intramembranous, endochondral)
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| Intramembranous ossification | bone formation within mesenchyme; embryonic connective tissue (flat bones of skull, mandible)
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| Endochondral ossification | mesenchyme, hyaline cartilage, bone formation, most bones in body, primary ossification centers (epiphyseal plate)
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| Epiphyseal plate | hyaline cartilage between epi- and metaphysis; responsible for length wise growth of long bones
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| Bone growth | length (interstitial), thickness (appositional)
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| Bone growth in length | epiphyseal plates, growth of cartilage and its replacement by bone, (close after puberty, replaced by epiphyseal line)
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| Bone growth in width | addition of new bone to the periphery by osteoblasts in periosteum; as new bone is deposited on the outside, osteoclasts in endosteum destroy bone on the inside – enlargement of medullary cavity
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| Bone remodeling | ongoing replacement of old bone tissue by new one (4% per year compact; 20% per year spongy), bone resorption (osteoclasts), bone deposition (osteoblasts), adaption to function
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| Factors affecting bone growth and remodeling | minerals, vitamins, hormones, sex hormones
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| Vitamins affecting bone growth and remodeling | C (collagen formation); K, B12 (protein synthesis); A (stimulation of osteoblasts); D (mineralization)
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| Minerals affecting bone growth and remodeling | Ca, P, Mg, F, Fe, Mn
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| Hormones affecting bone growth and remodeling | human growth hormone; thyroid hormones; parathyroid hormone; calcitonin
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| sex hormones and bone growth and remodeling | growth spurt, closure of epiphyseal plates
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| Fracture | break in bone
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| Repair of bone | 1) formation of fracture hematoma (6-8hrs); 2) formation of fibrocartilaginous callus (3 wks); 3) formation of bony callus (3-4 mos); 4) bone remodeling
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| Treatment of fractures | reduction (open/closed), immobilization
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| Osteoporosis | porous bones, loss of bone mass, bone resorption outpaces bone deposition; 80% of women
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| Problems associated with osteoporosis | fractures, shrinkage of vertebrae, height loss, hunched backs & bone pain
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| Prevention of osteoporosis | weight-bearing exercise, adequate calcium intake
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| Reasons women’s bones are less massive then men’s bones | 1) inactive lifestyles, 2) 2) production of estrogens in women decline dramatically at menopause (hormone replacement therapy)
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| Rickets (children) Osteomalacia (adults) | bones fail to calcify, organic matrix still produced but calcium salts are not deposited and bones become “soft” or rubbery and easily deformed; lack of Vitamin D, (deficiency in diet or lack of sun)
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