CNS for A&P
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| longitudinal fissure | separates the cerebral hemispheres from one another
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| transverse fissure | separates the cerebrum from the cerebellum
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| gyri | elevated ridges on tissues of brain surface
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| sulci | Shallow grooves between the gyri
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| lateral sulcus | separates termporal lobe from the frontal lobe and the parietal lobe
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| central sulcus | separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe. Contains pre and postcentral gyri.
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| cerebral cortex | the conscious mind; contains motor, sensory, and association areas.
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| motor area | controls voluntary movement (frontal lobe)
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| sensory area | conscious awareness of incoming stimuli
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| association area | integrate, analyze, evaluate information for purposeful action
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| 6 lobes on each side: | frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal, insular, and libmic
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| Frontal Lobe | voluntray muscle activation, emotions and judgments, Broca's area ( controls motor aspect of speech), and frontal eye field
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| Primary motor area | in precentral gyrus. Allows for voluntary control of skeletal movement.
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| Damage to primary motor area | affects voluntary movement, not reflex movements
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| Pyramidal cells | in precentral gyrus, form the voluntary motor tract
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| voluntary motor tract | also called corticospinal tract
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| Premotor cortex | found anterior to precentral gyrus. controls learned motor patterns like typing.
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| Broca's area | in left frontal lobe. Controls speaking ability.
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| Damage to Broca's area | failure of word formation, younger than 10 can re-establish in the right hemisphere
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| Frontal eye field | voluntary movement of eyes
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| Parietal Lobe | Postcentral gyrus: primary sensory cortex for integration of sensation; receives fibers conveying touch, prioproception, pain and temperature from the opposite side of the body
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| Primary somatosensory cortex | in postecentral gyrus, info received from proprioreceptors in muscles and skin's sensory receptors to identify the area being stimulated.
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| Somatosensory association area | analyzes and evaluates sensory inputs for texture, size, relationship of its parts. Recognition by stored memories.
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| Occipital lobe | visual input and interpretation
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| Primary visual cortex | info from optic nerve for perception of visual stimuli (Occipital lobe)
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| Damage to primary visual cortex | total blindness
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| Visual association area | recognize/interpret visual images by past experience (occipital lobe)
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| damage to visual association area | sight ok but unable to interpret what is seen
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| Temporal lobe | receives and processes auditory stimuli, Wernicke's area(language comprehension)
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| primary auditory area | superior margin of temporal lobe, input from cochlear receptors for pitch, rhythm, loudness (temporal lobe)
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| auditory association area | stores memories of sounds for reference, ability to distinguish (speech vs singing)
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| olfactory cortex | sensory info from chemoreceptors in nose (temporal)
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| gustatory cortex | info from taste buds (temporal)
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| Insula | forms the floor of lateral sulcus; memory coding, integration of sensory inform with visceral responses, coordinating the cardiovasuclar response to stress
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| prefrontal cortex | personality, judgement, intellect, moods (limbic system). Develops by positive and negative feedback/social cues.
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| affective language areas | interprets nonverbal, emotional components (tone of voice)
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| General interpretation area | typically left hemisphere, stores complex auditory and visual memory patterns. Receives info from all sensory association areas.
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| Damage to gen. interpretation area | hear individual words but cannot speak in understandable form
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| Wernicke's area | language expression/comprehension, sounding out words *permanently assigned before adolescence
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| Damage to wernicke | inability to understand words seen or heard, words spoken do not make sense together
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| Limbic system | emotional states, located in medial aspects of each cerebral hemisphere and diencephalon
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| Limbic system functions | memory storage/retrieval, motivation, linking conscious functions of cortex with brain stem
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| Amygdala | emotion and memory, esp. fear and anxiety
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| Hippocampus | learning/memory
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| Damage to Hippocampus | can't learn new info (no short term memory)
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| Reticular formation | located in medulla, pons, midbrain in the reticular substance
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| Function RAS | consicousness, arousal, sends signals to cortex and antigravity muscles, receives input from afferent tracts
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| Reticular inhibitory center | medial and anterior section of medulla oblongata, functions to decrease action potentials from RAS, so decreased muscle tone during sleep
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| Sleep waves | Large amplitude, slow frequency
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| Left hemisphere | usually dominate, reasoning language, math, logic
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| Right hemisphere | creativity, intuition, emotion
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| Disconnection syndrome | transection of corpus callosum so R & L hemispheres try to go at the same time. Objects touched by left hand are recognized but can't be verbally idenitified.
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| Plasticity | neuronal connections can change with experience (less with age), skills can transfer to other hemisphere if there is damage
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| Learning | 12 hour baby knows train travels behind curtain will come out the other side; 3 month
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| Associative learning | two stimuli associated with each other (Pavlov)
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| Non-associative learning | imitative behavior; habituation, sensitization
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| Habituation | decreased response to irrelevant stimuli (repeated)
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| Sensitization | exposure to relevant stimuli creates an enhanced response
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| Short-term memory | store 8-11 pieces of information, info in STM lost unless put in LTM
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| Working memory | STM for tasks; looking both ways to cross street
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| Long-term memory | can be reflexive or declarative
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| Reflexive (LTM) | implicit memroy, by repetition, involves amygdala and cerebellum tasks like tying shoes
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| Declarative (LTM) | explicit memory, by conscious attention, involves temporal lobes
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| Neurotransmitters | chage the resting membrane potential; act rapidly for fast synapitc communication, open ion channels
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| Neuromodulators | act upon ion channels, 2nd messenger system
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| GABA | inhibitory CNS neurotransmitter, opens Cl channels on postynaptic targets for hyperpolarization
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| Glutamate | excitatory CNS neurotransmitter, opens Na channels on postsynaptic tragets = depolarization
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| Cerebral white matter | communication between cerebral areas and cerebral cortex and lower CNS, myelinated fiber bundles, oligodendrocytes
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| Commisural fiber tracts | horizontal to connect areas of cerebral hemispheres
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| Corpus callosum | largest commisurre, superior to lateral ventricles
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| association tract | transmit impulses within a single hemisphere, short association fibers connct adjacent gryi, long association fibers connect different cortical lobes
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| projection tracts | vertical to unite cerebral hemispheres with lower brain and spinal cord (connect brain with rest of body)
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| internal capsule | asending and descending projection tracts, form a copmact bundle as they pass betwen thalamus and basal nuclei
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| corona radiata | projection tract fibers disperse into cerebral white matter
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| Basal nuclei | corpus striatum, paired masses og gray matter found within white matter of cerebral hemispheres
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| Lentiform nucleus | Putamen (neurons are active prior to body movements) and Globus pallidus (regulate muscle tone)
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| Caudate nucleus | coordinate gross motor movement patterns like gait, activity of neurons before eye movement
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| Corpus Striatum | the combination of caudate and lentiform nuclei
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| Functions of Basal nuclei | invovled in slow rhythmic movements, inhibit antagonistic movements
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| Impairment of basal nuclei | abnormal posture, muscle tone tremors (Parkinson's, Hunting's Chorea)
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| Parkinson's | substentia nigra cells destroyed, inadequate dopamine = no inhibition of basal nuclei's movement
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| L-dopa | can get through the blood brain barrier, only good for 3-5 years
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| Diencephalon | central core of brain: thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus, surrounding the third centricle
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| Thalamus | sensory impulses from spinal cord, brain stem, cerebellum, to cerebal cortex.
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| Functions of Thalamus | acts as a filter (edits information) afferent impulses from all over the body converge on thalmaic nuclei, some conscious awareness of emotional states
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| Hypothalamus | integrates ANS and endocrine system), maintains body homeostasiss:temperature, appetite, thirst, sexual behavior, and emotion
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| Epithalamus | roof of third ventricle, includes choroid plexus and pineal gland
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| Pineal gland | melatonin from serotonin (sleep-wake), antioxidant for CNS neurons
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| Choroid plexus | forms cerebrospinal fluid
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| Brain stem | midbrain, pons and medulla oblongata
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| Midbrain | contains cerebral aqueduct, cerebral peduncles, copora quadrigemina, superior and inferior colliculi
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| Cerebral aqueduct | (in midbrain) connects 3rd and 4th ventricles
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| Cerebral peduncles | pair of fiber bundles on ventral surface of midbrain, contain the corticospinal tracts
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| corpora quadrigemina | rounded emincences on dorsal portion of midbrain, posterior to cerebral aqueduct
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| Superior colliculi | reflex for movments of eyeballs and head in response to visual and other stimuli, coordinate movements for visual tracking
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| Inferior colliculi | reflex for movements of head and trunk in response to auditory stimuli
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| Pons | between midbrain and medulla oblongata, contains deep longitudianl projection fiber for the motor and senosry tracts (connect the spinal cord and medulla with higher brain centers)
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| Middle cerebellar peduncles | (Pons) contains transverse fibers to connect pons with cerebellum
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| Medulla Oblongata | below pon, continuation of spinal cord, contains pyramids and inferior cerebellar peduncles
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| Pyramids | (Medulla) longitudianl ridges contain corticospinal tracts from cerebral cortex
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| Inferior cerebellar peduncles | fiber tracts that conect the medulla to the cerebellum dorsally
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| Functions medulla visceral nuclei | Cardiac center (force/rate of heart by ANS), Vasomotor center (regulates BP), respiratory center
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| Vasodilation | decrease in action potential, decrease in BP
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| Vasoconstriction | increase in action potentials, increase in BP
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| Cerebellum | separated from temoral and occipital lobes by transveres fissure
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| Functions of Cerebellum | subconsciously coordinate fine and gross motor movements, posture, balance, fore and direction of movement
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| Anatomy of cerebellum | 2 cerebellar hemispheres
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| Vermis | connects the cerebellar hemispheres
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| Folia | transversley oriented surface ridges of cerebellum
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| Anterior and Posterior lobe of Cerebellum | integrating and executing movement
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| Flocculonodular lobe of Cerebellum | maintains equillibrium and eye movements
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| Superior cerebellar peduncles | efferent,(away from CNS) and afferent (toward CNS) tracts
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| Efferent Superior cerebellar pedundcle tract | connects to midbrain and cerebral motor cortex via cerebellothalamocoritical tract
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| Afferent Superior cerebellar peduncle tract | input from anterior spinocerebellar tract and sends these to cerebellum
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| Middle cerebellar peduncles | connects pons with cerebellum, one way transmission to cerebellum = awareness of motor cortex's action
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| Inferior cerebellar peduncles | connects cerebellum with medlla, contains afferent nerve tracts (give cerebellum info from proprioreceptors). equilibrium and balance
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| Meninges | dura mater, arachnoid matter, pia mater
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| Dura mater | outer layer composed of periosteal layer and meningeal layer
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| Peristeal dura mater | thicker, inelastic outer layer, adhres to cranial bones
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| Menigeal dura mater | thinner, inner layer invaginates to form flat septa that serve to limit excessive movement of the brain within the skull
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| Falx cerebri | in longitudinal fissure, attaches to crista gali, helps brain move when head moves
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| Tentorium cerebelli | transverse fissure between cerebrum and cerebellum
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| Arachnoid mater | middle meninge, contains serous fluid (allows movment)
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| Subarachoid space | between arachnoid and pia mater, contains CSF arachnoid villa absorbs CSF into dural sinuses
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| Pia mater | thin, vascular loose CT on surface of brain, dips into all sulci and fissures
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| Cerebsopinal fluid | liquid cusion for CNS, water consistency, nutrient rich
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| Choroid plexuses | clusters of capillaries located in ventricles which form CSF
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| Blood brain barrier | endothelium and basal lamina of cappillaries, keeps brain's environment stable
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| Spinal cord | 31 segments, paired spinal nerves
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| Cervical enlargement | contains nerves for upper extremeties, C4-T1
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| Lumbar enlargement | contains neres supplying lower extremeties, T9-T12
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| Spinal dural sheath | formed by single dura mater (only menigeal layer)
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| epidural space | not in brain, only vertebrae, filled with fat, CT and blood vessels
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| subdural space | space between dura and arachnoid mater, contains serous fluid
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| Subarachnoid space | between arachnoid and pia mater, circulation CSF
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| Grey mater of spinal cord | neuron cells cell bodies and neuroglia, anterior, posteral and lateral horns
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| Anterior (ventral) horns | cell bodies somatic motor neurons, motor part of grey mater = voluntary control muscle, axons carried via ventral roots
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| Posterior (dorsal) horns | interneurons, sensory part of grey matter
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| Lateral honrs | autonomic motor neurons innervate visceral organs, axons carried within dorsal roots
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| Spinal nerves | fusing of dorsal and ventral roots.
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| Dorsal root | afferent fibers receive from peripheral sensory receptors
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| Dorsal root ganglion | nerve cell bodies of sensory neurons
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| White matter | myleinated and unmyelinated nerve fibers: ascending tracts (to brain), descending tacts (to spine), horizontal tracts (one side of cord to another)
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| Names of tracts | white column + origin of cell bodies + termination of axons + direction of impulse within tract
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| Ascending (sensory) tracts | to brain, from sensory receptors in skin and propriorectors in muscles/joints/tendons
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| fasciculi gracilis and fasciculi cuneatus | conscious interpretation of light touch, weight discrimination, sterognosis (recongize by touch), conscious proprioception
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| lateral spinothalmic tract | information for pain and temperature
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| anterior spinothalmic tract | information for crude touch and pressure
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| anterior (ventral) spinocerebellar tract | information to cerebellum for subconscious propriocrecption in trunk and lower limbs, coordinates muscle activity
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| Anterior spinocerebellar tract uses what paths | efferent signals from anterior hornos via corticospinal and rubrospinal tracts, back to cerebellum by superior cerebellar peduncle
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| Posterior (dorsal) spinocerebellar tract | information to cerebellum vis ainferio rcerebellar peduncle about subconscious propriorecption in lower limbs
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| Posterior spinocerebellar tract uses what path | receive afferent impulses from somatic recepotrs and golgi tendon organs, helps with joint position, rate of joint movement, muscle contraction
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| Descending (motor) tracts | dliver efferent impulses from the brain--> spinal cord
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| Pyramidal/corticospinal tract | "direct", precise voluntary movement, skilled patterns, includes lateral and anterior corticospinal tracts motor impulses from cerebrum--> spinal cord
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| Indirect/other motor pathways | from brain stem for balance, posture, coarse movements, visually tracking objects
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| Tectospinal | coordinates head and eye movments, arises in superior colliculi of midbrain
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| Reticulospinal | pontine and medullary divisions, controls most unskilled gross movements like walking
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| Pontine reticulspinal tract | excitatory to muscles that support the body against gravity (balance)
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| Medullary reticulospinal tract | inhibits antigravity muscles (up step)
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| Vestibulospinal | balance for skeletal muscle movment in response to movements of the head
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| Rubrospinal | arises from red nucleus in mesencephalon, muscle tone and posture on opposite side of body
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| lower motor lesions | damage to anterior horn motor neurons = flaccid paralysis, neither voluntary or involuntary movement, no reflexes
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| upper motor lesions | pyramidal neurons, spastic paralysis = reflex ok
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| Three primary germ layers | ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm
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| Ectoderm | nervous tissue, epidermis
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| Mesoderm | muscle, Connective tissue, mesothelium and endothelium
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| Endoderm | mucous membranes
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| Notochord | rod of mesodermal cells, eventaully replaced by vetebral column
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| 17th day of development | ectoderm overlapping notochord thickens to form neural plate
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| 21st day of development | raised edges of neural palte form neural folds
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| 23rd day of development | superior margins of neural folds fuse to form neural tube, detaches from ectoderm
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| Anterior end of neural tube | forms brain and sensory organs
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| posterior end of neural tube | spinal cord
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| 28th day of development | bain forms at anteior neural tube
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| Three primary brain vesicles (28th day) | forebrain (prosencephalon), midbrain (mesencephalon), hindbrain (rhombencephalon)
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| 35th day of development | secondary brain vesicles, forebrain divides--> cerebrum, diencephalon (epithalamus, thalamus, hypothalmus), hindbrain pons, cerebellum, medulla oblongata
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| origin of ventricles of brain | from enlargements in central cavity of neural tube
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| Lateral ventricles | pair, one in each cerebral hemisphere, separated by septum pellucidum, communicate with 3rd ventricle via interventricular foramen
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| Cerebral aqueduct | communicates with 3rd and 4th ventricles
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| Fourth ventricle | opens into subarachnoid space, containing CSF
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| Capillary groups | Choroid plexuses on roof of 3rd and 4th ventricles, contain CSF
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| Sympathetic Division | Activates or speeds up organs. "Fight or Flight"
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| Parasympathetic Division | Slows down organs. "Rest & Digest"
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| Autonomic Nervous System | Regulates activities that are automatic of involuntary. Maintains functioning of many organs
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| Sensory Division | Affrent -Transmits impulses to the CNS
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| Motor Division | Efferent - Tansmits impulses from CNS to muscles or glands.
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| Peripheral Nervous System | The nervous system outside the brain & spinal cord.
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| Division of PNS | (A) Sensory Division - Afferent (B) Motor Division - Efferent
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| Limbic system functions are: | feeding, agression, emotions, endocrine aspect of sexual response
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| Basal ganglia | masses of gray matter deep withinh the cerebral hemispheres
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| Epithalamus | Habenular nuclei: integrate olfactory, visual and somatic afferent pathways; Pineal glang: secrets hormones that inluence the oituitary gland and several other organs
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| Brainstem: | midbrain -mesencephalon, pons, and modulla oblongata
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| Medulla oblongata | center for vitual functions: cardiac, respiratory, and vasomotor centers
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| cerebellum: | archicerebellum, paleocerebellum ( spinocerebelum), neocerebellum (panthocerebellum)
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| archicerebellum | concerned with equilibrum, regulation of muscle tone, cordinates VO reflex
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| paleocerebellum ( spinocerebelum) | receives imput from proprioceptive pathways and is concered with modyfing muscle tone nd synergistic actions of muscles, important in maintance of posture
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| neocerebellum (panthocerebellum) | smooth coordination of voluntary movements, important for motor learning, sequencing of movements and visualy trigered movements
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