Cells & Tissues: Structure & Function in Hlth & Disease
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| tissues | group of similar cells joined to perform a specific function
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| organs | group of different tissues organized to perform a specific function
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| organ systems | group of organs that function together as unit
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| various organ systems are integrated to form | a functioning organism
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| dysfunction at any the level of tissue, organ, organ system or orgransim can cause | disease
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| cells having different functions differ in ___ but all have different features in common | structure
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| nucleus consists of ___ stored in a cell | genetic information
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| directs the metabolic function of the cell | the nucleus
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| structures in the nucleus' cytoplasm | carry out the directions for the cell
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| organelle | small structure in cytoplasm which play important function within cell
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| filaments of structural protein, contained in cytoplasm, form | the cytoskeleton of the cell
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| cytoskeleton | framework of the cell
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| some cells also contain filaments of | contractile protein
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| cytoplasm, nucleus & organelles are surrounded by membranes composed of | lipid & protein molecules, seperating structures from one another
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| nucleus contains two different types of | nucleic acid combined with protein
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| deoxyribonucleic acid DNA | nucleic acid that carries genetic information
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| nuclear chromatin | DNA network of granules
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| DNA is contained in | the chromosomes of nuclei
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| appears long & thin in nondividing cell; appearing as network of granules | DNA molecules
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| riboneucleic acid RNA | nucleic acid contained in nuclei of cells
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| component of messenger, transfer and ribosomal | RNA molecules
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| the RNA nucleus is seperated from cytoplasm by | double-layered nuclear membrane
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| small pores in the nuclear membrane permit | comminucation between nucleus and cytoplasm
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| cytoplasm of cell consists of | mass of protplasm surrounded by cell membrane
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| cell membrane acts | selectively to allow some materials into/out of cell, while restricts passge of others
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| cytoplam can contain various organelles & may also contain | products that accumulate within the cell, such as glycogen/fat
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| mitochondria, ER, Golgi app, lysosomes, centrioles, cytoskeleton tubules/filaments are | most important organelles in cytoplasm
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| some disease have been associated with abnormalities in | cytoplasmic organelles
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| mitochondria | rod-shaped structures in cell
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| contains enzymes capable of converting food materials into energy by oxidizing them | mitochondria
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| adenosine triphosphate (ATP) | high-energy phosphate compound liberates energy to power numerous cellular metabolic processes
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| cell uses energy, created by mitchondria, to manufacture | ATP
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| endoplasmic reticulum (ER) | mass of hollow, tubular channels within cytoplasm, frequently bordered by ribosomes
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| network communicates with both nuclear membrane & cell membrane | endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
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| rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) has numerous | ribosomes attached to external surface
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| function is to synthesize protein that will be secrete by the cell | rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
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| ribosomes | small cytoplasmic organelles serving as site of protein synthesis
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| usually attached to RER but may also be free in cytoplasm | ribosomes
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| digestive enzymes & antibody proteins are produced by | protein synthesis
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| smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) | membranes contain enzymes that synthesize lipids & other substances
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| lacks ribosomes attached to external surface | smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
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| Golgi apparatus | group of membrane-lined sacs in cytoplasm of cell near nucleus
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| sacs of Golgi apparatus are connected with | tubules of RER
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| pass through RER tubules into Golgi apparatus | proteins produced by ribosomes attached to RER
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| large carbohydrated molecules synthesized & combined with proteins, then formed into secretory granules & discharged from cell, in | Golgi apparatus
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| lysis | dissolving
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| soma | body
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| lysosomes | cytoplasmic organelles filled with protein disolving enzymes
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| Golgi apparatus makes | lysosomes
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| "digestive system" of the cell | are the lysosomes
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| lysosomes break down material brought into the cell by | phagocytosis
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| phagocytosis | ingestion of particulate of foreign material by cell
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| vacuole | cavity or vesicle in the cytoplasm of a cell containing fluid
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| phagocytic vacuole | membrane-lined cavity where ingested particle becomes enclosed during phagocytosis
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| lysosomes merge with phagocytic vacuole, & their celle membranes fuse allowing for | digestive enzymes to flow in & digest engulfed material
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| prevents injury of cell by preventing digestive enzymes from leaking into cytoplasm | digestion taking place entirely within vacuole
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| structures within cytoplasm of cells that carry out functions of cell are known as | organelles
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| cell controlled by this structure, which houses genetic material behind double-layered membrane | nucleus
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| cytoskeleton is composed of | microtubules, microfilaments &intermediate filaments
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| process by which stratified epithelium produces a protective layer of fibrous protein | keratinization
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| long, star-shaped cells that interface to form framework of CNS | astrocytes
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| mesoderm of the developing embryo will eventually produce | bladder
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| how many types of nucleotides compose DNA | four
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| active transport is the opposite of osmosis because | it requires energy to be expended
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| unnatural death and necrosis of cells due to external factors | apoptosis
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| as cells age they become | less resistant to injury
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| in some diseases lysosomal enzymes are not able to function properly causing | incompletely digested material to accumulate with lysosomes disruptin cell function
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| peroxisomes are cytoplasmic organelles that contain | enzymes to break down various potentially toxic intracellular molecules
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| hydrogen peroxide H2O2 is | potentially toxic byproduct of enzyme action
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| promtply decomposed by one of enzymes in peroxisome | hydrogen peroxide H2O2
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| centrioles | short cylindrical structures adjecent to nucleus, move to opposite poles of cell
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| participate in formation of mitotic spindle during first cell division | centrioles
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| spindle fibers attach to chromosomes causing | them to seperate during course of cell division
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| cytoskeleton | consists of 3 diff types of protein tubules & filaments; responsible for cell movements
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| microtubules | largest cytoskeleton components
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| microfilaments | smallest cytoskeleton components
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| intermediate filaments | small, tough protein filaments which reinforce interior of cell, hold organelles in proper position & resp for characteristic shape of each specific type of cell
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| five different types of intermediate filaments can be identified in cells by | specific histological techniques
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| characteristic of each type of cell | each type of intermediate filament
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| identification & characterization of intermediate filaments often provides | diagnostic & prognostic information
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| in Alzheimer disease | intermediate filaments exhibit characteristic abnormalities establishing diagnosis
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| useful in diagnosing tumors | identification of type of intermediate filament
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| epithelium | groups of cells clesly joined together, in single layer or many layers thick
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| cover exterior & line interior body surfaces that communicate with outside the body | epithelial cells
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| parenchymal cell | functional cell of an organ or tissue
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| parenchyma | functional cells of organ, contrasted with connective & supporting tissue forming its framework
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| endothelium | layer of simple squamous epithelium lining interiors of heart & blood/lymphatic vessels
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| mesothelium | layer flat squamous epithelial cells lining surfaces of plueral, pericardial, & peritoneal cavities
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| mesoderm | middle germ layer of embryo, giving rise to specific organs & tissues
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| endothelium & mesothelium characterized as epithelium, but actually more closely related to | connective tissue
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| endothelium & mesothelium arise along with connective tissues from | mesoderm
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| epithelial cells are supported by | a thin basement membrane
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| cells nourished by diffusion of material from capillaries in underlying connective tissue; there are no blood vessels in | epithelium
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| simple squamous epithelium can only be found forming | lining of pulmonary air sacs
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| simple columnar epithelium lines | most of gastrointestinal tract
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| pseudostratified columnar epithelium is a type of | simple columnar epithelium
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| pseudostratified columnar epithelium cells are tightly packed, their nuclei appear to | lie at different levels
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| lines most of respiratory tract & present in few other areas; often ciliated | pseudostratified epithelium
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| pseudostratified columnar epithelium give appearance of | stratification
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| covers external body covering, lines oral cavity, esophagus & vagina | stratifies squamous epithelium
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| stratified epithelium is named for appearance of | most superficial cell layer
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| designed "stratified squamous" even though deeper layers are cubiodal cells | stratified epithelium
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| keratin | insoluable sulfur-containing protein that is principal constiuent of hair/nails
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| transitional epithelium consists of layer larger superficial cells covering deeper layer of | cuboidal cells
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| lines bladder & other parts of urinary tract | transitional epithelium
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| become flattened when bladder distended & resume original shape when bladder empty | superficial cells of transitional epithelium
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| all types of epithelium perform | a protective function
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| exocrine gland | discharges secretions through duct onto mucosal surface
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| endocrine gland | discharges secretion directly into bloodstream
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| matrix | extracellular material in which connective tissue cells are embedded
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| collagen fibers | long, flexible fibers composed of protein
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| elastin | protein that is chief constituent of elastic fibers
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| similar to collagen | elastin
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| collagen fibers are strong but do not | stretch
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| elastic fibers | readily stretch & return to former shape when stretching force released
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| composed of elastin & are not as strong as collagen | elastic fibers
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| reticulin fibers | thin & delicate protein substance that is a constituent of reticular tissue
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| include various loose & dense fibrous, elastic, reticular, adipose, cartilage & bone | connective & supporting tissues
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| hematopoietic tissue & lymphatic tissue are classified as connective tissue originating from | the mesoderm
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| tissues involved in the formation of blood cells | hematopoietic tissue
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| tissues involved in the formation of lymphocytes | lymphatic tissue
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| loose fibrous tissue forms subcutaneous tissue and | fills in around organs
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| ligaments & tendons are composed of | dense fibrous tissue
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| reinforce joints & attached muscles to bone | ligaments & tendons
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| the most widely distributed fibrous tissue | loose
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| forms membrane wrapped around walls of blood vessels & characteristic distensibility of large arteries | elastic tissue
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| forms part of the walls of the trachea & bronchi | elastic membranes
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| fine mesh-work of a specific type of fiber, which forms the supporting framework of various organs | reticular tissue
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| reticular tissues makes up organs such as | liver, spleen & lymph nodes
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| variety of loose fibrous tissue containing large numbers of fat cells | adipose tissue
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| functions as padding & insulation; is a stored form of energy | adipose/fat
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| type of supporting tissue in which cells dispersed in dense matrix | cartilage
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| hyaline cartilage | translucent, bluish-white, consisting of cells embedded in apparently homogeneous matrix
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| most common type of cartilage | hyaline
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| covers ends of bones at movable joints, forms greater part of laryngeal/tracheal cartilages, & connects ribs to sternum | hyaline cartilage
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| yellowish flexible cartilage having the matrix infiltrated in all directions by a network of fibers | elastic cartilage
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| elastic cartilage if found, chiefly, in the | external ear, Eustachian tube, & some cartilages of larynx/epiglottis
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| elastic fibers impart ___ which is lacking in other cartilages | flexibility
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| contains many dense collagen bundles embedded in matrix; found in areas of weight-bearing stress | fibrocartilage
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| fibrocartilage forms the discs between vertebral bodies and | cartilages of the knee joints
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| highly specialized, rigid,largely calcareous connective tissue | bone
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| means containing calcium carbonate | calcareous
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| contains hematopoietic cells, which are permeated with calcium salts | matrix of bone
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| contains filament of specialized intracellular contractile proteins | muscle cells
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| the contractile proteins are | actin & myosin
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| protein found especially in microfilaments, as those comprising myofibrils | actin
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| actin is active in cellular movement, the maintenance of cell shape and | muscular contraction
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| fibrous globulin of muscle that can split ATP | myosin
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| myosin reacts with actin to form | actomyosin
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| viscus contractile complex; concerned together with ATP in muscular contraction | actomyosin
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| smooth muscle | functions automatically & not under conscious control
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| striated muscle | moves skeleton & under voluntary control
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| cardiac muscle | found only in the heart; functions automatically & not under conscious control
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| lacks cross striations, made up of elongated spindle-shaped cells w/central nucleus | smooth muscle
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| marked by transverse dark and light bands, includes skeletal and usually cardiac muscle | striated muscle
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| elongated striated muscle fibers consists of single cell having intrinsic rhythm of contraction/relaxation even when isolated; branched ends to other such cells by intercalated disks | cardiac muscle
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| neuron | one of cells that constitute nervous tissue, transmit nervous impulses
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| neuroglia | supporting nervous tissue cells
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| astrocytes | star-shaped cells with numeroud highly branched processes interlace to form meshwork
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| oligodendroglia | small sellc with scanty cytoplasm surround individual nerve cells in CNS
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| microglia | phagocytic cells of nervous system
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| stroma | tissue that forms framework of organ
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| trophoblast | cell derived from fertilized ovum that gives rise to fetal membranes & contribute to formation of placenta
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| inner cell mast | group cells dervied from fertilized ovum & destined to form embryo
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| germ layers | 3 layers of cells derived from inner cell mass
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| ectoderm | outer germ layerin embryo, gives rise to specific organs & tissues
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| entoderm | inner germ layer of embryo, gives rise to specific organs & tissues
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| forms external cover of body & various organs that bring person into contact with external enviroment | ectoderm
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| forms "internal linings" | entoderm
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| layers of cells sandwished btwn ectoderm & endoderm | mesoderm
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| genetic code | information carried by codons on DNA molecules in chromosomes
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| chromosomes are composed of | DNA combined with protein
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| nucleotide | basic structural unit of DNA
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| consists of phosphate group linked to , joined to a base | nucleotide
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| deoxyribose | a 5-Carbon sugar
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| base | solution containing excess of hydroxyl ions & having a pH greater than 7.0
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| purine base | contains fused double ring of carbon & nitrogen atoms; type of DNA base
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| pyrimidine base | contains only single ring; type of DNA base
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| purine bases are | adenine & guanine
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| pyrimidine bases are | thyamine & cytosine
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| there are 4 different nucleotides in DNA each containing | a different base
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| DNA molecules consists of 2 strands of DNA heald together by | weak chemical attractions btwn adjent bases of adjacent chains
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| the chemical structures os the bases is such so that adenine can only pair with | thymine
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| complementary bases allow for | conservation of your genetic code
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| the chemical structures os the bases is such so that guanine can only pair with | cytosine
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| in DNA strands, as a spiral staircase, the complementary bases form the | steps
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| in DNA strands, as a spiral staircase, the phosphate groups form the | two railings
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| as a cell prepared to divide, the double strands of DNA | duplicate themselves
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| as a cell prepared to divide, the two chains of DNA separate & each chain serves as | a model for the synthesis of a new chain
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| because of base pairing, arrangements of nucleotides in original chain determine | how nucleotide will reassmble to form a new chain
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| process of duplication | forms 2 double strands, each containing 1 of original strands & 1 newly formed strand
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| DNA in the nucleus "tells the cell what to do" by | directing synthesis of enzymes & other proteins by ribosomes in cytoplasm
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| messenger RNA or mRNA | carries message encoded in DNA to ribosomes in cytoplasm
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| mRNA consists of | single strand strand, 5-C sugar ribose & uracil as the base
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| during synthesis of mRNA the DNA chain | partially separates & serves as model on which mRNA is assembled
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| information transported on mRNA is exact copy of genetic info possessed by | nuclear DNA
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| mRNA strand leaves nucleus through | pores in nuclear membrane
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| once out of nuclear membrane mRNA attaches to | ribosomes in cytoplasm
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| ribosomes in the cytoplasm are small nucleoprotein particles where | enzymes & other proteins are contructed from individual amino acids
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| information in mRNA strand that attaches to ribosomes in cytoplasm determines | combination of amino acids require to assemble the protein
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| amino acids are transported to the ribosomes by means of | transfer RNA or tRNA
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| tRNA | "picks up" required amino acids from cytoplasm & transfers them to the ribosomes where assembled in proper order according to mRNA info
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| diffusion | movement of solute from more concentrated to more dilute solution
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| movement of water molecules from dilute solution to more concentrated solution | osmosis
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| diffusion & osmosis are both | passive processes, that do not require cell to expend energy
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| if membrane is freely permeable to both water/solute particles, solute particles diffuse | from higher solute concentration on rght side of membrane into lower solute on lft side
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| in freely permeable membrane, at same time solute is diffusing, water particles diffuse | in opposite direction, from more dilute on rght side to more concentrated on lft
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| at equilibrium the concentration of water & solute particles are | the same on both sides on membrane
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| even after equilibrium is acheived, water & solute particles continue to move | in both direction, equally
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| if membrane not permeable to solute particles on one side, water molecules moves by osmosis | from left to more concentrated right side of membrane
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| osmotic activity/osmotic pressure | pressure required to stop osmosis through semipermeable membrane btwn solution & pure solvent
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| the more concentrated the solution the higher its | osmotic pressure
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| osmolarity | reflects # of dissolved particles in solution
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| osmolarity of bodily fluids is usually expressed in | milliosmoles per liter (mOsm/L) because contain low concentrations of dissolved particles
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| movement of water/solute btwn extracellular & intracellular fluid is regulated by | the cell membrane
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| osmolarity of extracellular & intracellular fluids is | the same; two fluid compartments in equilibrium
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| solutes in extracellular fluid which contribute to its osmolarity are | Na+ (sodium), Cl- (chloride), & HCO3- (bicarbonate) ions
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| major intracellular ions are | K+ (potassium) & PO4-3 (phosphate)
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| sodium-potassium ions differences on two sides of cell membrane are important for | normal cell functions
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| tonicity | effective osmotic pressure equivalent
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| isontonic solution | osomtically = to patient's body fluids & can safely be administered to patient
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| only solutions used for intravenous administration | isotonic solutions
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| hypertonic solution | one having an osmotic pressure greater than that of a standard of reference
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| cells exposed to hypertonic solutions | shrink because water moves by osmosis into hypertonic fluid
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| hypotonic solution | one having an osmotic pressure less than that of a standard of reference
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| cells exposed to hypotonic solutions | swell as water moves by osmosis from hypotonic fluid into cells where osmolarity is higher
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| osmotic flow of water into cells, such as red cells, may be so great that | cell membranes of overdistended cells may rupture, causeing red cells to collapse & hemoglobin to leak from cells
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| if osmolarity of ECF higher than that within cells | water flows by osmosis from cell into ECF, and vice versa
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| in disease osmolarity of ECF may be high/low leading to | secondary changes in water content of cells & impair their function
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| in active transport the cell must expend energy to | move against concentration gradient
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| many metabolic processes depend on | active transport of ions or molecules
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| pinocytosis | liquid absorption by cells which a segment of cell membrane forms small pockets & engulfs liquid
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| atrophy | reduction in size of cells in response to diminished function, inadequate hormonal stimulation, or reduced blood supply
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| hypertrophy | increase in size of cells without actual increase in # of cells
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| hyperplasia | increase in the number of cells
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| hyperplasia occurs in response to | increased demand
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| metaplasia | change from one type of cell to another type, better able to tolerate adverse enviromental condition
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| dysplasia | abnormal maturation of cells
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| neoplasia | pathological process results in formation/growth of tumor
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| if increased demand placed on cells to inactivate/detoxify drugs/chemicals they respond by | synthesizing more SER enzymes to handle demand more efficiently
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| most common morphological abnormalities of an injured cell are | cell swelling & fatty change
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| normally functioning cell actively transports | potassium into cell & moves sodium out
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| if a cell is injured & unable to function normally | the transport mechanism begins to fail
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| cell swelling occurs, if a cell is injured, when | sodium diffused into cell, & water moves along with it
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| if cell swelling continues, the cell may accumulate | fluid-filled vacuoles which may eventually rupture
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| fatty change to a cell may occur if enzyme systems that metabolize fat are imparied causing | fat droplets within cytoplasm
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| common manifestation of liver injury | fatty change
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| necrosis | structural changes associated with cell death
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| all necrotic cells are | dead
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| a dead cell is not necessarily necrotic because | structural changes that characterize cell death take several hours to develop
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| on histological exams necrotic cells are easily recognised because | structural & staining characteristics are quite different from normal cells
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| all normal cells have a predetermined | life span; programmed to die after specific period of time
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| number of functional cells in body tissues is determined by balance of | proliferation of new cells & death of older "worn-out" cells
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| apoptosis | programmed cell death that occurs after cell has lived its normal life span
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| if genes that regulate apoptosis become deranged/cease to function properly, cells may | continue to proliferate instead of dying as they should
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| excessive #s of cells may accumulate in organs/tissues, which | disrupts their functions & leads to disease
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| failure of normal mechanisms regulating apoptosis appear to result in | some tumors
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| series of messages within chromosome that regulates various functions of cell | genetic code
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| genetic code is | contained within structure of DNA & transmitted to each newly formed cell in cell division
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| within the cytoplasm are numerous small structures that have important role in cell functions | organelle
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| increase in size of tissue/organ caused by increase in the number of cells | hyperplasia
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| condition in which development/maturation of cells disturbed & abnormal | dysplasia
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| movement of dissolved particles from a more concentrated to a more dilute solution | diffusion
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| major type of tissue whose major functions are protection, absorption and secretion | epithelial tissue
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| major type of tissue whose major functions are connecting/supporting tissue(s), distensibility of arteries, & forming supporting framework of organs | connective/supportive tissues
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| major type of tissue whose major functions are forming walls of hollow internal organs, move the skeleton, and forms cardiac tissue | muscle tissue
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| major type of tissue whose major functions are to support and transmit nerve impulses | nerve tissue
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| increase in both cell size and number due to a specific demand vs. an individual cells varying in size and shape from development/maturation | difference between hyperplasia & dysplasia
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