Urinary Systen
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kidneys are located | posterior to the peritoneum and in the superior lumbar region
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major factor regulating sodium ion concentration in extracellular fluid (ECF) is | aldosterone
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structural and functional units of the urinary system are | nephrons
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glomerular capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule | correct pathway of glomerular filtrate through the nephron
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hilus is not | a layer surrounding the kidney
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painful urination | dysuria
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"tube" that carries urine from the urinary bladder to the outside world is | urethra
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"tube" that carries urine from the kidney to the urinary bladder is | ureter
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urinary bladder is made up of | 3 smooth muscle layers
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when moderately full the urinary bladder may contain | 500ml of urine
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two sphincters are found in | urethra
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by the age of 4 yrs old, children should be able to control | voluntary urination through the night
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this drops by about 50% by the age of 70 | glomerular filtration rate
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the ascending limb of the Loop of Henle ____ sodium chlorida into interstitim | actively transports
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active transport in ascending limb of the Loop of Henle _____ concentration of interstitium | increases
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the fluid inside the ascending limb of the Loop of Henle becomes more | diluted
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highest concentration of NaCl- in the Loop of Henle is found | near bottom of the loop
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descending limb of the Loop of Henle supplies ____ to ascending limb | sodium chloride
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the cells in the descending loop are not permeable to solute, therefore | filtrate becomes more concentrated as water diffuses out
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very dilute urine with a low specific gravity in the urine indicates | diabetes insipidus
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excessive fluid intake would lead to the formation of | dilute urine with a low specific gravity
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blood flows into the glomerulus from | afferent arteriole
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Podocytes are | cells of the inner layer of the glomerular capsule
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fluid enters the loop from the | proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)
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bladder wall contains three layers of smooth muscle, collectively known as the | detrusor muscle
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bladder wall mucosa consists of | transitional epithelium
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detrusor muscle & transitional epithelium make the bladder uniquely suited for | storage
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regulation of blood pH, by elimination of excess acids/alkaline substances from body, is accomplished by | renal mechanism
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what are the structural and functional units of the kidneys involved in forming urine? | nephrons
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what enzyme produced by the kidneys helps to regulate blood pressure? | renin
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aldosterone, a hormone produced by the adrenal glands, helps to | regulate the concentration of sodium ions and other ions in the extracellular fluid
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what is normally present in filtrate forced from glomerular capillaries but doesn't normally appear in the urine? | glucose
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filtrate that is formed is essentially blood plasma, which lacks a vital component | proteins
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what enters the renal tubule by both filtration & secretion? | creatine
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when appear in urine, indicate a problem | blood cells are normally too large to pass through the filtration membrane
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cystitis | inflammation of urinary bladder
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pyelitis | inflammation of a kidney
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polyuria | excretion of a large volume of urine
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located within ventral cavity, retroperitoneal position, superior lumbar region | kidneys
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ADH increases the permeability of the nephron walls to facilitate | tubular reabsorption
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release of aldosterone is triggered by | Low sodium ion levels, high potassium ion levels, & rising levels of angiotensin
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lies deep in the kidney & consists of many triangular regions with a striped appearance | renal medulla
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triangular areas in renal medulla | renal pyramids
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Cortical tissue that extends between the medullary or renal pyramids is termed | renal columns
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Each kidney is surrounded by a layer of fibrous tissue called | renal capsule
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one of the small extensions of the renal pelvis into which the renal papillae open | calyx
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if one dissected a medullary or renal pyramid, what structure would be found? | collecting tubules
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when blood volume drops for any reason arterial blood pressure | drops
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when blood volume drops for any reason hypothalamic osmoreceptors react by becoming | more active
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when hypothalamic osmoreceptors become more active they | send impulses to the posterior pituitary for the release of ADH
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The proximal portion of the nephron is located in which layer of the kidney? | Renal cortex
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The cells of the juxtaglomerular apparatus | secrete renin
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catalyzes a series of reactions resulting in angiotensin II, causing vasoconstriction | when juxtaglomerular apparatus secretes renin
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expansion of the ureter into the substance of the kidney forms | renal pelvis
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flat funnel-shaped tube, which is continuous with the ureter as it leaves the kidney | the renal pelvis
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filtrate materials found in the nephron first leave the blood at | the glomerulus
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notch on the medial surface of the kidney, through which the blood vessels enter and leave the kidney, is called | the renal hilus
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portion of the nephron that is most closely associated with the collecting duct is called | the distal convoluted tubule
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enlarged, cup-shaped, closed end of renal tubule, which completely surrounds glomerulus | the Bowman's capsule
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tubular reabsorption | uptake of substances from the lumen of the nephrons
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three processes, which result in the formation of urine, are | glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, & tubular secretion
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What is the function of renin? | catalyses the formation and release of angiotensin
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most superficial region of the kidney | the renal cortex
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where does most reabsorption of substances from the glomerular filtrate occur? | in the proximal convoluted tubule
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endocrine gland primarily concerned with sodium & potassium ion balance in the body | the adrenal cortex releases aldosterone
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erythropoietin | hormone secreted by kidneys that stimulates RBC production in bone marrow
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function of paired ureters | serves as transportation channels to carry urine away from one body region to another
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function of urinary bladder | provide temporary storage reservoirs for urine
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kidney | small, dark red organs with kidney-bean shape extend from T12 to L3
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gives a fresh kidney a glistening appearance | fibrous capsule
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perirenal fat capsule | surrounds each kidney, acting as cushion against blows
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renal fascia | outermost capsule, anchoring kidney & holds in place against muscles of trunk wall
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ptosis | kidneys drop to a low position
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rapid weight loss can lead to | a condition called ptosis
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ptosis may cause the ureters of kidneys to | becomed kinked & urine backs up exerting pressure on kidney tissue
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hydronephrosis | distention of renal pelvis and calices with urine
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result of obstruction/atrophy of urinary tract | hydronephrosis
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renal medulla | deep to cortex, darker reddish-brown
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renal cortex | outer region, light in color
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apex , tip, points | toward inner region of kidney
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base faces | toward cortex
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renal columns separate | renal pyramids with extensions of cortex-like tissue
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renal pelvis is medial to | hilum; it is a flat, basin-like cavity
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the renal pelvis is continuous with | ureter, leaving hilum
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calyces, which collect urine, are | extensions of the renal pelvis; cup-shaped areas enclosing tips of pyramids
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the blood supply of the kidneys | is rich
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about 1/4 of total blood supply of body | passes through kidneys each minute
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renal artery | arterial blood supply of kidney
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renal artery approaches hilum where it divides into | segmental arteries
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segmental arteries give off several branches called | interlobar arteries
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interlobar arteries | travel through renal columns to reach cortex
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interlobar arteries give off the arcuate arteries at | the cortex-medulla junction
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arcuate arties | curve over medullary pyramids
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cortical radiate arteries branch off | arcuate arteries
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cortical radiate arteries | run outoward to supply cortical tissue
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venous blood draining from kidney flows through veins that | trace pathway of arterial supply, but in reverse
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the veins of the kidney emerge from | the kidney hilum
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there are no segmented | veins
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glomerulus | knot of capillaries
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renal tubule | closed end enlarged, cup-shaped & completely surrounds glomerulus
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Bowman's capsule | visceral layer made up of highly modified, octopus-like cells
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renal tubule surrounds | the Bowman's capsule
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podocytes | porous membrane surrounding glomerulus; cells of the Bowman's capsule
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foot processes of podocytes | long branching processes that intertwine with one another & cling to glomerulus
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filtration slits | openings in podocytes, between extensions
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renal tubule extends from glomerular capsule coils & twists, makes a hair-pin loop, | then coils & twists again entering collecting duct
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as the renal tubule leaves glomerular capsule, coiling & twisting, it is | called the proximal convoluted tubule, or PCT
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when the renal tubule makes its hair-pin loop, it is | called the loop of Henle
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when the renal tubule leaves the loop of Henle, coiling & twisting it is | called the distal convoluted tubule, or DCT
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lumen surface | surface exposed to filtrate
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lumen surfaces of PCT are covered with | dense microvilli
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the dense covering of microvilli, in the PCT | increases their surface area
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most nephrons are called cortical nephrons because | located almost entirely in the cortex
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situated close to cortex-medulla junction & their loops of Henle dip deep into medulla | juxatmedullary nephrons
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collecting ducts | receive urine from nephrons & run downward through renal pyramid
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deliver final urine product into calyces & renal pelvis | the collecting ducts
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each nephron is associated with 2 capillary beds | glomerulus & peritubular
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glomerulus capillary bed | specialized for filtration
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afferent arteriole | arises from cortical radiate artery; "feeder vessel" of the nephron
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efferent arteriole | receives blood that has passed through glomerulus
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fed & drained by arterioles, unlike any other in the entire body | the glomerulus capillary bed
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in the glomerulus capillary bed pressure is much higher because | arterioles are high-resistance vessels & afferent arteriole has larger diameter than efferent
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the extremely high pressure in the glomerulus capillary bed | forces fluids & solutes out of blood into glomerular capsule
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peritubular capillary bed | arises from efferent arteriole that drains glomerulus
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low-pressure, porous vessels adapted for absorption instead of filtration | the peritubular capillary bed
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peritubular capillary bed cling closely to length of renal tubule, so they can | receive solutes & water from tubule cells as they are reabsorbed from filtrate in tubule
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peritubular capillary bed drains into | interlobular veins leaving cortex
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glomerular filtration is a nonselective, passive process where | fluid passes from blood into glomerular capsule portion of renal tubule
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once fluid in glomerular capsule, called filtrate, which is essentially | blood plasma without blood proteins
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as long as the systemic blood pressure is normal | filtrate will be formed
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filtrate production stops if | arterial blood pressure falls too low
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when arterial blood pressure falls too low filtration stops because | glomerular pressure becomes inadequate to force substances out of blood into tubules
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oliguria | abnormally low urinary output between 100-400ml/day
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anuria | abnormally low urinary output less than 100ml/day
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tubular reabsorption begins as soon as | filtrate enters PCT
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PCT cells are | "transporters"
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reabsorption of most substances depends on | active transport processes
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tubular reabsorption uses membranes carries & are | very selective
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nitrogenous waste products | urea, uric acid, & creatinine
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poorly reabsorbed & found in high concentrations in urine | nitrogenous waste products
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urea | formed by liver as an end product of protein breakdown when amino acids are use for energy
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uric acid | released when nucleic acids are metabolized
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creatinine | associated with creatine metabolism in muscle tissue
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in order to maintain blood pH & electrolyte composition of the blood | various ions are either reabsorbed or allowed to leave in the urine
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DCT & collecting duct are also active in | the tubular reabsorption process
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tubular secretion is | tubular reabsorption in reverse
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tubular secretion also gets rids of substances | not already in filtrate, such as certain drugs, excess K+ or to balance blood pH
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in 24 hours, 150 to 180 liter of blood plasma is | filtered by glomeruli into tubules
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in 24 hours, 1.0 to 1.8 liters | of urine is produced
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freshly voided urine is normally | clear to deep yellow
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urochrome | pigment resulting from body's destruction of hemoglobin, gives urine yellow color
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diluted urine is | pale, straw color
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amonia odor in urine is caused by | action of bacteria on the urine solutes
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urine pH is usually | slightly acidic 6
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changes in body metabolism & certain foods may cause urine to be | more basic or acidic
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diabetes mellitus can alter | the usual odor of urine
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acid-ash foods | diet of large amount of protein & whole-wheat products causes urine to become more acidic
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alkaline-ash diet | makes urine alkaline because kidneys excrete excess bases; vegetarian diet
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bacterial infection of urinary tract can cause | urine to be alkaline
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urine weighs more, or is more dense than | distilled water
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specific gravity | compare how much heavier urine is than distilled water
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sensitve early marker for kidney damage | proteinuria
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each urter runs behind peritoneum from | renal hilum to posterior aspect of bladder, entering at a slight angle
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peristalsis of smooth muscles layers of ureters | propel urine into the bladder
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small valvelike folds of bladder mucosa flap over the urter openings preventing | urine from flowing back into ureters from bladder
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when urine is extremely concentrated solutes, such as uric acid salts, form | crystals that precipitate in renal pelvis
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renal calculi | crystals in renal pelvis, or kidney stones
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lithotripsy | use ultrasound waves to shatter calculi, so they can be painlessly voided in urine
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urinary bladder is a | smooth, collapsible, muscular sac that temporarily stores urine
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the urinary bladder is located | retroperitoneally in pelvis, just posterior to pubic symphysis
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ureteral orifices | two ureter openings
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internal urethral orifice | single opening of urethra
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trigone | smooth traingular ergion of bladder base outlined by ureter & internal urethra orifices
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infections tend to persist in this region | trigone
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urethra | thin-walled tube that carries urine from bladder to outside of body, via peristalsis
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bladder-urethra junction a tickening of smooth muscle form | the internal urethral sphincter
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internal urethral sphincter | involuntary sphincter keeping urethra closed when urine is not being passed
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external urethral sphincter | skeletal muscle as urethra passes through pelvic floor; voluntarily controlled
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urethritis | inflammation of urethra
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micturation/voiding | act of emptying the bladder
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impulses transmitted to sacral region of spinal cord & back to the bladder | via pelvic splanchnic nerves
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pelvic splanchnic nerve impulses cause | the bladder to go into reflex contractions, causing the need to void
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incontinence | unable to voluntarily control external sphincter
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in children incontinence is usually due to | emotional problems
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urinary retention is a condition in which | the bladder in unable to expel its contained urine
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often occurs after surgery or due to hyperplasia of prostate gland | urinary retention
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hyperplasia | enlargement
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catheterization is treatment for | the condition of urinary retention
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blood composition depends on | cellular metabolism, diet & urine output
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water account for about 75% of body weight in | babies with little fat and low bone mass
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water account for about 50% of body weight in | women who have more fat than muscle
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water account for about 60% of body weight in | men who have more muscle than fat
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water account for about 45% of body weight in | eldery
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fluid compartments | three main locations with the body occupied by water
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intracellular fluid (ICF) | fluid compartment contain within living cells
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extracellular fluid (ECF) | fluid compartment including all body fluids outside the cells
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2/3 of body fluid is contained in | ICF & ECF
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ECF includes | blood plasma, intersitial fluid, cerebrospinal fluid, serous fluids, humors of eyes, lymph & others
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plasma links | internal & external enviroments
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important to overall body homeostasis | types & amounts of solutes in the body
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deficit of sodium ions in ECF results in | water loss from bloodstream into tissue spaces & muscular weakness
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thirst mechanism | driving force for water intake
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an increase in plasma solute content of 2-3% | excites hypothalamic thirst center
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reabsorption of water & electrolytes by kidneys is regulated | primarily by hormones
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osmoreceptors | highly sensitive cells in hypothalamus react to change in blood composition
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antidiuretic hormone (ADH) | hormone prevents excessive water loss in urine
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nerve impulses, caused by active osmoreceptors, are sent to | posterior pituitary to release ADH
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target for ADH is | the kidney's collecting ducts
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sodium ion is the electrolyte most responible for | osmotic water flows
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80% of sodium in filtrate is | reabsorbed in PCT of kidneys
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for each sodium ion reabsorbed | chloride ion follows & potassium ion secreted into filtrate
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water follows | salt
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renin-antiotensin mechanism | most important trigger for aldosterone release
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juxtaglomerular apparatus consists of complex modified smooth muscle cells (JG cells) in | the afferent arteriole
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juxtaglomerular apparatus consists of modified epithelial cells | forming part of the DCT
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when JG apparatus stimulated by low blood pressure in afferent arteriole | respond by releasing renin into blood
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acts directly on adrenal cortical cells to promotes aldosterone release | when juxtaglomerular apparatus secretes renin
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acidosis | drop in arteial blood pH below 7.35
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alkalosis | arterial blood pH rises above 7.45
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physiological acidosis | any arterial blood pH between 7.35 & 7
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acid-base balance is distrubed by | acidic substances entering the blood, due to H ions originating as by-products of cellular metabloism
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kidneys assume most of load for maintaining | acid-base balance of the blood
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chemicals buffers are systems of 1 or 2 molecules that | act to prevent dramatic changes in H+ concentration when acids/bases are added
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first line of defense in resisting blood pH changes | are chemical buffers
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weak acids are effective at preventing pH changes since they are | forced to dissociate & release more H+ when pH rises over desirable range
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important role in chemical buffer system | weak acids
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weak bases are valuable chemical buffers becasue | when Ph drops, they become "stronger" & tie up more H+
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three major chemical buffer systems are | bicarbonate, phosphate & protein
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bicarbonate buffer system | mixture of carbonic acid & sodium bicarbonate
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strong acid is changed to a weak one, in the bicarbonate buffer system, by | salt acts as base to tie up H+ released by stronger acid forming more carbonic acid
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cabon dioxide is released expelled from the lungs at the same rate as | it is formed in the tissues
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lungs can elimanate cardon dioxide but the other acids generated during metabolism | can only be elimanted by the kidneys
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only the kidneys have the ability to regulate blood levels | of alkaline substance
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most potent mechanism for regulating blood pH | is the kidneys
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most important menas the kidneys maintain acid-base balance of blood are | extreting bicarbonate ions & reabsorbing or generating new bicarbonate ions
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urine pH varies from | 4.5 to 8
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variation in urine pH reflects the ability of | renal tubules to excrete basic/acid ions to maintain blood pH homeostasis
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the third set of tubule system in an embryo | develops into the functional kidneys
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embryo is excreting urine by | the third month of fetal life
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polycystic kidney | degenerative condition where one or both kidenys enlarged with cysts containing urine
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two most common congenital kidney diseases | polycystic kidney & hypospadias
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hypospadias | condition found in males only, when urethral orifice located on ventral surface of penis
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newborn kidneys are not able to concentrate urine for the 1st 2 months because | bladder is very small
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escherichia coli | normal residents of digestive tract
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excherichia coli are dangerous pathogens | when they enter urinary system
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account for about 80% of urinary tract infections | escherichia coli
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glomerulonephritis | glomerular filters become clogged with antigen-antibody complexes from strep infections
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