integumentary system, bones, axial and app. skeleton, and joints
Quiz yourself by thinking what should be in
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| skin layers | epidermis (superficial layer)
dermis
NOT TECHNICALLY A LAYER:
Hypodermis or superficial fascia
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| epidermis | top layer of skin
made of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
4-5 layers
4 cell types
keratinocytes, melanocytes, merkel cells, and langerhan's cells,
function: protection
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| cell types in epidermis | keratinocytes:
melanocytes:
Merkel Cells:
Langerhans cells:
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| keratinocytes: | mostly produce keratin (fibrous protein)
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| melanocytes | produce melanin and makes up 10-25% of the cells in the lower epidermis
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| Merkel Cells | touch receptors (tactile)
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| Langerhans cells | macrophages that assist in cell immunity
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| layers of the epidermis | top to bottom:
stratum corneum
stratum granulosum
stratum spinosum
stratum basale
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| stratum corneum | 20-30 rows of keratinized dead cells
3/4 of the thickness of the epidermis
function:
protection from abrasion, waterproofs, barrier against attack
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| Stratum Granulosum | 3-5 layers of layers that get flattened
Keratohyaline and lamellated granules accumulate
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| Stratum Lucidum (clear layer) ONLY FEET AND HANDS | thick skin only (soles of feet and palms of hands)
several layers of DEAD keratinized cells
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| Stratum Spinosum | Abundant melanin granules in keratinocytes
dendritic or Langerhan’s cells
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| Stratum Basale | attached to the dermis
one row of stem cells
it takes 25-45 days for cells to go from basal layer to top of skin
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| dermis | strong and flexible connective tissue
two layers:
reticular & papillary
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| papillary layer | areolar connective tissue with collagen and elastic fibers
Dermal papillae contain:
Capillary loops
Meissner’s corpuscles
Free nerve endings
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| Reticular layer | 80% thickness of the dermis
contain collagen fibers and elastic fibers
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| skin markings | friction ridges and cleavage lines
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| friction ridges | Epidermal ridges that are on top of l deeper dermal papillary ridges (form friction ridges of fingerprints)
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| cleavage lines | Collagen fibers arranged in bundles form cleavage (tension) lines
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| Incisions made parallel to cleavage lines heal more readily | true
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| Sensory receptors in dermis | Pacinian corpuscles
Meissner corpuscles
free nerve endings
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| Pacinian corpuscles | stimulated by heavy pressure deep in dermis
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| Meissner corpuscles | tactile sense to light touch (dermal papillae)
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| Free Nerve endings | respond to temperature (in basal layer of epidermis)
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| Hypodermis | subcutaneous layer below skin
composed of adipose tissue and areolar connective tissue
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| Skin color pigments | Melanin
Carotene
Hemoglobin
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| Melanin | Produced in melanocytes; migrates to keratinocytes where it forms “pigment shields” for nuclei
Freckles and pigmented moles:
Local accumulations of melanin
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| Carotene | Yellow to orange, most obvious in the palms and soles
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| Hemoglobin | Responsible for the pinkish hue of skin
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| Appendages of the skin | Sweat glands
Oil glands
Hairs and hair follicles
Nails
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| Sweat gland types | Eccrine
Apocrine
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| Eccrine sweat glands | Abundant on palms, soles, forehead and all over the body
Sweat: 99% water, NaCl, vitamin C, antibodies, metabolic wastes
Ducts connect to pores
Function in thermoregulation
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| Apocrine sweat glands | Confined to axillary and anogenital areas
Sweat: fatty substances and proteins
Ducts connect to hair follicles
puberty onward (as sexual scent glands?)
Does not participate in thermoregulation
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| Specialized apocrine glands | Ceruminous glands—in external ear canal; secrete cerumen
Mammary glands
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| Sebaceous (oil) glands | Widely distributed
Most develop from hair follicles
Become active at puberty
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| Sebum | Oily holocrine secretion
Bactericidal
Softens hair and skin
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| Functions of hair | Maintain warmth
Alerting the body to presence of insects on the skin
Guards scalp against physical trauma, heat loss, and sunlight
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| Hair distribution | over the entire body except for palms, soles, and lips
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| Hair Follicle parts | shaft
hair root
bulb
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| hair follicle wall | 2 layers
outer connective tissue root sheath
inner epithelial root sheath
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| hair follicle location | from epidermal surface to dermis
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| Arrector pilli | smooth muscle attached to follicle
causes goose bumps
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| Hair follicle receptor (root hair plexus) | Sensory nerve endings around each hair bulb
Stimulated by bending a hair
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| Types of hair | Vellus
Terminal
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| Vellus | pale, fine body hair of children and adult females
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| Terminal | coarse, long hair of eyebrows, scalp, axillary, and pubic regions (and face and neck of males)
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| Functions of Integumentary System | Protection (3 types)
Body temp regulation
cutaneous sensations
metabolic function
blood reservoir
excretion
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| Function: Protection | Three types:
Chemical
Physical/mechanical barriers
Biological barriers
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| Protection: chemical barrier | Low pH secretions (acid mantle) and defensins retard bacterial activity
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| Protection: physical barrier | Keratin and glycolipids block most water and water- soluble substances
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| Protection: biological barrier | Dendritic cells, macrophages, and DNA
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| Function: Body Temp | ~500 ml/day of routine insensible perspiration (at normal body temp)
At high temps, dilation of dermal vessels and increased sweat gland activity (sensible perspirations) cool the body
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| Function: Cutaneous sensations | Temperature, touch, and pain
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| Function: Metabolic functions | Synthesis of vitamin D precursor and collagenase
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| Function: blood reservoir | up to 5% of body’s blood volume
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| Function: excretion | nitrogenous wastes and salt in sweat
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| Skin cancer types | Basal cell carcinoma (least malignant, most common)
Squamous cell carcinoma (second most common)
Melanoma (most dangerous)
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| Basal cell carcinoma | Stratum basale cells proliferate and slowly invade dermis and hypodermis
Cured by surgical excision in 99% of cases
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| Squamous cell carcinoma | Involves keratinocytes of stratum spinosum
Most common on scalp, ears, lower lip, and hands
Good prognosis if treated by radiation therapy or removed surgically
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| Melanoma | Involves melanocytes
Highly metastatic and resistant to chemotherapy
Treated by wide surgical excision accompanied by immunotherapy
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| Burns | damage: tissue damage, denatured protein, cell death)
Immediate threat: Dehydration and electrolyte imbalance, leading to renal shutdown and circulatory shock
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| Rule of Nines | Used to estimate the volume of fluid loss from burns
head and neck: 9%
upper limbs: 18%
trunk: 36%
lower limbs: 36%
perineum: 1%
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| Partial Thickness Burns | First degree
Second degree
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| First Degree burn | Epidermal damage only
Localized redness, edema (swelling), and pain
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| Second degree burn | Epidermal and upper dermal damage
Blisters appear
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| Full Thickness Burn (3rd degree) | Entire thickness of skin damaged
Gray-white, cherry red, or black
No initial edema or pain (nerve endings destroyed)
Skin grafting usually necessary
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| skeletal cartilage | Has no blood vessels
3 types:
hyaline
fibrocartilage
elastic
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| types of bone growth | oppositional
interstitial
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| interstitial growth | bones to grow in length
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| oppositional growth | bones grow in thickness (width)
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| axial skeleton | bones of the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage
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| appendicular skeleton | bones of the upper and lower limbs, shoulder, and hip
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| long bones | longer than they are wide (humerus, tibia, etc)
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| short bones | Cube-shaped bones (in wrist and ankle)
Sesamoid bones (within tendons, e.g., patella)
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| Flat bones | Thin, flat, slightly curved
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| irregular bones | Complicated shapes
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| Functions of bones | Support –
Protection –
Movement –
Mineral storage –
Blood cell formation
Triglyceride
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| Function: Support | form the framework that supports the body and cradles soft organs
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| Function: Protection | provide a protective case for the brain, spinal cord, and vital organs
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| Function: Movement | provide levers for muscles
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| Function: Mineral storage | reservoir for minerals, especially calcium and phosphorus
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| Function: Blood cell formation | hematopoiesis occurs within the marrow cavities of bones
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| Function: Energy storage | Triglyceride (energy) storage in bone cavities
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| Bone textures | Compact bone
Spongy bone
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| Compact bone | Dense outer layer
Made of osteons
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| Spongy (cancellous) bone | Made of honeycomb of trabeculae
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| Structure of a long bone | Diaphasis
Medullary Cavity
Epiphysis
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| Diaphasis | shaft of bone
Compact bone collar surrounds medullary (marrow) cavity
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| Medullary Cavity | in adults contains fat (yellow marrow)
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| Epiphyses | Expanded ends
Spongy bone interior
Epiphyseal line (remnant of growth plate)
Articular (hyaline) cartilage on joint surfaces
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| Membranes of bones | Peristeum
Endosteum
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| Endosteum | Delicate membrane on internal surfaces of bone
Also contains osteoblasts and osteoclasts
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| Peristeum | Outer: fibrous layer
Inner: osteogenic layer
Osteoblasts
Osteoclasts
Osteogenic cells (stem cells)
Nerve fibers, nutrient blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels enter the bone via nutrient foramina
Secured to underlying bone by Sharpey’s fibers
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| diploe | spongy bone in flat bones
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| Structure of Short, Irregular, and Flat Bones | Periosteum-covered compact bone on the outside
Endosteum-covered spongy bone within
Bone marrow between the trabeculae
Have no diaphysis or epiphyses
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| Location of Hematopoietic Tissue (Red Marrow) | Adults: red marrow cavities
Trabecular cavities of the heads of the femur and humerus
Trabecular cavities of the diploë of flat bones
Infants: red marrow
Medullary cavities
All spaces in spongy bone
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| Osteoblasts | bone forming cells
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| Osteoclasts | break down bone
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| Osteocytes | mature bone cells
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| Osteogenic (osteoprogenitor) cells | Stem cells in periosteum and endosteum that give rise to osteoblasts
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| Haversian system, or osteon | structural unit of compact bone
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| Lamellae | Weight-bearing
Column-like matrix tubes
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| Chondrocytes | Are in between the lamella
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| Lacunae | small cavities that contain osteocytes
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| types of canals in compact bone | Perforating (Volkmann’s) canals
Central (Haversian) canal
Canaliculi
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| Perforating (Volkmann’s) canals | At right angles to the central canal
Connects blood vessels and nerves of the periosteum and central canal
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| Central (Haversian) canal | Contains blood vessels and nerves
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| Canaliculi | hairlike canals that connect lacunae to each other and the central canal
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| Trabeculae | spongy bone
align along lines of stress
no osteons
capillaries in endosteum supply nutrients
Contain irregularly arranged lamellae, osteocytes, and canaliculi
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| Chemical Composition of Bone: Organic | osteoblasts
osteoclasts,
osteocytes,
osteogenic cells,
osteoid
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| Osteoid | organic bone matrix secreted by osteoblasts
Ground substance (proteoglycans, glycoproteins)
Collagen fibers
Provide tensile strength and flexibility
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| Chemical Composition of Bone: Inorganic | Hydroxyapatites (mineral salts)
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| Hydroxyapatites (mineral salts) | 65% of bone by mass
Mainly calcium phosphate crystals
Responsible for hardness and resistance to compression
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| Osteogenesis | bone tissue formation
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| Stages of osteogenesis | Bone formation—begins in the 2nd month of development
Postnatal bone growth—until early adulthood
Bone remodeling and repair—lifelong
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| Types of Ossification | Intramembranous ossification
Endochondral ossification
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| Intramembranous ossification | Membrane bone develops from fibrous membrane
Forms flat bones, e.g. clavicles and cranial bones
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| Endochondral ossification | Cartilage (endochondral) bone forms by replacing hyaline cartilage
Forms most of the rest of the skeleton
Uses hyaline cartilage models
Requires breakdown of hyaline cartilage prior to ossification
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| postnatal bone growth | interstitial
oppositional
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| Growth in length of long bones | 4 zones:
Proliferation (growth)
Hypertrophic
Calcification
Ossification (osteogenic)
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| Growth Hormone | stimulates epiphyseal plate activity
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| Thyroid Hormone | modulates activity of growth hormone
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| Testosterone and estrogens (at puberty) | Promote adolescent growth spurts
End growth by inducing epiphyseal plate closure
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| Bone Deposit | occurs where a bone is damaged which provides extra support
person needs to have a healthy diet
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| Bone Reabsorption | osteoclasts secrete
Lysosomal enzymes (digest organic matrix)
Acids (convert calcium salts into soluble forms)
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| Hormones in bone (BONE GROWTH) | children: growth and thyroid hormone
adults: estrogen or testosterone
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| Hormones for calcium homeostasis | when blood Ca is low: PTH
increases activity of osteoclasts
When blood calcium is high: Calcitonin
increases activity of osteoblasts
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| Osteoporosis | loss of bone mass
osteoclasts outpace osteoblasts
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| Osteomalacia | calcium salts not deposited which causes vitamin d deficiency
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| Rickets | childhood disease that causes bowed legs
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| Wolff's law | A bone grows or remodels in response to forces or demands placed upon
ex. if right handed: bones of right hand are stronger than the left hand
area where bone curves is thickest
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| Why is calcium necessary? | Transmission of nerve impulses
Muscle contraction
Blood coagulation
Secretion by glands and nerve cells
Cell division
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| cranial bones | frontal, pariteal, occipital, temporal, sphenoid, ethmoid
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| temporal bones projections | Zygomatic process
Mastoid process
Styloid process
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| temporal bones openings | External auditory/acoustic meatus where ear is
Jugular foramen
Carotid canal
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| mandibular fossa | Mandibular fossa –
- Articulation: mandibular fossa articulates with the mandibular condyle of the mandible
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| occipital bone | contains:
foramen magnum: for spinal cord
occipital condyles
external occipital protruberance
hypoglossal canal
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| Sphenoid bone | Optic canal/foramen – between the 2 wings
R - foramen rotundum
O – foramen ovale
S – foramen spinosum
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| Ethmoid bone | upper part of nasal septum – vertical plate
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| Sutures | joints between cranial bones
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| Corona suture | between frontal and parietal
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| sagittal suture | between parietal bones
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| Squamous suture | between temporal and parietal
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| lambdoid suture | between occipital and parie
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| Facial bones | Mandible
Maxillae
Palatine
Zygomatic
Nasal
Lacrimal
Vomer
Inferior nasal concha
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| Mandible | lower jaw
body
ramus
mandibular condyles – posterior projection of the ramus
articulation: mandibular condyle articulates with mandibular fossa of the temporal bones
coronoid process – anterior projection of the ram
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| nasal bone | forms the bridge of the nose
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| lacrimal bone | has a depression of the nasolacrimal duct
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| vomer | has a depression of the nasolacrimal duct
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| inferior concha | plates of bone in the nasal cavity
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| zygomatic bone | cheek bone
forms the zygomatic arch with the zygomatic process of the temporal bone
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| hard palate | anteriorly – maxilla
posteriorly – palatine bone
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| nasal septum | superior part – ethmoid bone
inferior part – septal cartilage
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| fetal skull | Fontanels – spaces between cranial bones
anterior fontanel – closes after 11/2 years
posterior fontanel – closes at birth
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| Paranasal sinuses | Paranasal sinuses: mucus membrane lined air filled cavities of the bones
maxillary sinus
frontal sinus
ethmoid sinus
sphenoid sinus
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| Parts of the vertebal column | Cervical vertebrae – 7
Thoracic vertebrae – 12
Lumbar vertebrae – 5
Sacrum -1
Coccyx – 1
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| vertebral curvatures | Cervical and lumbar
Thoracic and sacral
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| scoliosis | abnormal lateral curvature
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| kyphosis | exaggerated thoracic curvature (hunchback)
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| Lordosis | exaggerated lumbar curvature
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| Intervertebral discs | between the vertebrae, made with fibrocartilage
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| Intervertebral foramen/mina | holes between the vertebra laterally. The spinal nerves emerge from it/them
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| cervical vertebrae | Special features of all cervical vertebrae:
transverse foramen – on all cervical vertebrae
Spinous process - bifid or divided and short – except C1, and C7
Small vertebrae
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| atlas: C1 | No body
No spinous process
Transverse foramen present
Superior articular process – large
Articulation: superior articular process articulates with the occipital condyle of the skull
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| Axis: C2 | body
transverse foramen present
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| C3-C7 | Body small
Spinous process bifid except C7
Transverse foramen
C7 – vertebra prominence - spinous process is long – looks like in thoracic vertebrae
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| Lumbar vertebrae (5) | large vertebrae
spinous process – short and thick, like a hatchet
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| Sacrum | forms posterior wall of the pelvis
sacral foramina
ala – laterally
articulation: ala articulates with the auricular surfaces of hip bone (illium)
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| Coccyx | tail bone
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| Thoracic cage | thoracic vertebra
sternum
ribs and the costal cartilages
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| Sternum | manubrium – superior part
articulation: manubrium articulates with the clavicle and 1st and 2nd ribs
Body
articulation: body articulates with costal cartilages
xiphoid process
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| ribs | all attach posteriorly to vertebrae
all attach anteriorly through costal cartilages to the sternum directly or indirectly
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| ribs 1-7 (true ribs) | Ribs 1-7- true ribs – attach directly to sternum through costal cartilages
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| ribs 8-12 (false ribs) | attach indirectly to sternum by joining costal cartilage of the rib above
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| ribs 11-12 (floating ribs) | no anterior attachment to the sternum
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| Parts of a rib | Head
Articulation: head of the rib articulates with the demi facets on the vertebral body
Neck
Tubercle
Articulation: tubercle of the rib articulates with the facet on transverse process
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| Appendicular | Pectoral girdle
upper limb bones
pelvic girdle
lower limbs
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| Pectoral girdle: | Clavicle and scapula
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| upper limb bones | Arm, forearm, wrist, hand, fingers
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| pelvic girdle | Hip bones (2)
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| lower limbs bones | thigh, leg, ankle, foot, toes
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| clavicle | sternal end
Articulations: Sternal end or medial end articulates with sternum
acromial end
Articulations: Acromial end or lateral end articulates with acromial process of scapula
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| Scapula | boarders superior, lateral and medial
anterior surface:
Corocoid process
Subscapular fossa
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| Humerus | arm bone
Superior end:
Head of humerus –
Articulation – head with the glenoid fossa of the scapula
Neck
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| Humerus: Coronoid fossa | medial, on the anterior surface of humerus, above the trochlear
Articulation: coronoid fossa articulates with the coronoid process of ulna when the elbow is flexed
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| Humerus: Radial fossa | lateral, on the anterior surface of humerus, above the capitulum
articulation: radial fossa articulates with the radial head when the elbow is flexed
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| Humerus: Olecranon fossa | on the posterior surface of humerus
articulation: olecranon fossa articulates with the olecranon process of the ulna when the elbow is extended
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| Carpal bones | 8
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| Metacarpals | 5
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| Phalanges | 14
2 in thumb
3 in each digit
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| Pelvic girdle | Hip bones: 3
Ileum (hands of hips)
Ischium (sit on)
Pubic (in the front)
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| true pelvis | below pelvic brim
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| Femur: Distal end: Medial condyle | medially
Articulation: medial condyle articulates with the medical condyle of tibia
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| articulation | site where two bones meet
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| functions of articulations | Give the skeleton mobility
Hold the skeleton together
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| Three functional classifications: | Synarthroses
Amphiarthroses
Diarthroses
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| Diarthroses | freely movable
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| Amphiarthroses | slightly movable
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| Synarthrosis | immovable
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| Three structural classifications | Fibrous
Cartilaginous
Synovial
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| Flexion | bending movement that decreases the angle of the joint
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| extension | reverse of flexion; joint angle is increased
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| abduction | movement away from the midline
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| adduction | movement toward the midline
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| circumduction | movement describes a cone in space
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| plantar flexion | extension of the foot (pointed toes)
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| dorsiflexion | flexion of the foot (flat foot)
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| Inversion | turn sole medially (sole inwards)
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| nonaxial | slipping movements only
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| uniaxial | movement in one plane
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| biaxial | movement in two planes
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| multiaxial | movement in or around all three planes
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| insertion | attachment to the movable bone
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| origin | attachment to the immovable bone
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| intracapsular | deep to capsule; covered by synovial membrane
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Review the information in the table. When you are ready to quiz yourself you can hide individual columns or the entire table. Then you can click on the empty cells to reveal the answer. Try to recall what will be displayed before clicking the empty cell.
To hide a column, click on the column name.
To hide the entire table, click on the "Hide All" button.
You may also shuffle the rows of the table by clicking on the "Shuffle" button.
Or sort by any of the columns using the down arrow next to any column heading.
If you know all the data on any row, you can temporarily remove it by tapping the trash can to the right of the row.
To hide a column, click on the column name.
To hide the entire table, click on the "Hide All" button.
You may also shuffle the rows of the table by clicking on the "Shuffle" button.
Or sort by any of the columns using the down arrow next to any column heading.
If you know all the data on any row, you can temporarily remove it by tapping the trash can to the right of the row.
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Created by:
davisobr
Popular Anatomy sets