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A&P ch. 5, 6, 7, 8
integumentary system, bones, axial and app. skeleton, and joints
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| skin layers | epidermis (superficial layer) dermis NOT TECHNICALLY A LAYER: Hypodermis or superficial fascia |
| epidermis | top layer of skin made of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium 4-5 layers 4 cell types keratinocytes, melanocytes, merkel cells, and langerhan's cells, function: protection |
| cell types in epidermis | keratinocytes: melanocytes: Merkel Cells: Langerhans cells: |
| keratinocytes: | mostly produce keratin (fibrous protein) |
| melanocytes | produce melanin and makes up 10-25% of the cells in the lower epidermis |
| Merkel Cells | touch receptors (tactile) |
| Langerhans cells | macrophages that assist in cell immunity |
| layers of the epidermis | top to bottom: stratum corneum stratum granulosum stratum spinosum stratum basale |
| stratum corneum | 20-30 rows of keratinized dead cells 3/4 of the thickness of the epidermis function: protection from abrasion, waterproofs, barrier against attack |
| Stratum Granulosum | 3-5 layers of layers that get flattened Keratohyaline and lamellated granules accumulate |
| Stratum Lucidum (clear layer) ONLY FEET AND HANDS | thick skin only (soles of feet and palms of hands) several layers of DEAD keratinized cells |
| Stratum Spinosum | Abundant melanin granules in keratinocytes dendritic or Langerhan’s cells |
| Stratum Basale | attached to the dermis one row of stem cells it takes 25-45 days for cells to go from basal layer to top of skin |
| dermis | strong and flexible connective tissue two layers: reticular & papillary |
| papillary layer | areolar connective tissue with collagen and elastic fibers Dermal papillae contain: Capillary loops Meissner’s corpuscles Free nerve endings |
| Reticular layer | 80% thickness of the dermis contain collagen fibers and elastic fibers |
| skin markings | friction ridges and cleavage lines |
| friction ridges | Epidermal ridges that are on top of l deeper dermal papillary ridges (form friction ridges of fingerprints) |
| cleavage lines | Collagen fibers arranged in bundles form cleavage (tension) lines |
| Incisions made parallel to cleavage lines heal more readily | true |
| Sensory receptors in dermis | Pacinian corpuscles Meissner corpuscles free nerve endings |
| Pacinian corpuscles | stimulated by heavy pressure deep in dermis |
| Meissner corpuscles | tactile sense to light touch (dermal papillae) |
| Free Nerve endings | respond to temperature (in basal layer of epidermis) |
| Hypodermis | subcutaneous layer below skin composed of adipose tissue and areolar connective tissue |
| Skin color pigments | Melanin Carotene Hemoglobin |
| Melanin | Produced in melanocytes; migrates to keratinocytes where it forms “pigment shields” for nuclei Freckles and pigmented moles: Local accumulations of melanin |
| Carotene | Yellow to orange, most obvious in the palms and soles |
| Hemoglobin | Responsible for the pinkish hue of skin |
| Appendages of the skin | Sweat glands Oil glands Hairs and hair follicles Nails |
| Sweat gland types | Eccrine Apocrine |
| Eccrine sweat glands | Abundant on palms, soles, forehead and all over the body Sweat: 99% water, NaCl, vitamin C, antibodies, metabolic wastes Ducts connect to pores Function in thermoregulation |
| Apocrine sweat glands | Confined to axillary and anogenital areas Sweat: fatty substances and proteins Ducts connect to hair follicles puberty onward (as sexual scent glands?) Does not participate in thermoregulation |
| Specialized apocrine glands | Ceruminous glands—in external ear canal; secrete cerumen Mammary glands |
| Sebaceous (oil) glands | Widely distributed Most develop from hair follicles Become active at puberty |
| Sebum | Oily holocrine secretion Bactericidal Softens hair and skin |
| Functions of hair | Maintain warmth Alerting the body to presence of insects on the skin Guards scalp against physical trauma, heat loss, and sunlight |
| Hair distribution | over the entire body except for palms, soles, and lips |
| Hair Follicle parts | shaft hair root bulb |
| hair follicle wall | 2 layers outer connective tissue root sheath inner epithelial root sheath |
| hair follicle location | from epidermal surface to dermis |
| Arrector pilli | smooth muscle attached to follicle causes goose bumps |
| Hair follicle receptor (root hair plexus) | Sensory nerve endings around each hair bulb Stimulated by bending a hair |
| Types of hair | Vellus Terminal |
| Vellus | pale, fine body hair of children and adult females |
| Terminal | coarse, long hair of eyebrows, scalp, axillary, and pubic regions (and face and neck of males) |
| Functions of Integumentary System | Protection (3 types) Body temp regulation cutaneous sensations metabolic function blood reservoir excretion |
| Function: Protection | Three types: Chemical Physical/mechanical barriers Biological barriers |
| Protection: chemical barrier | Low pH secretions (acid mantle) and defensins retard bacterial activity |
| Protection: physical barrier | Keratin and glycolipids block most water and water- soluble substances |
| Protection: biological barrier | Dendritic cells, macrophages, and DNA |
| Function: Body Temp | ~500 ml/day of routine insensible perspiration (at normal body temp) At high temps, dilation of dermal vessels and increased sweat gland activity (sensible perspirations) cool the body |
| Function: Cutaneous sensations | Temperature, touch, and pain |
| Function: Metabolic functions | Synthesis of vitamin D precursor and collagenase |
| Function: blood reservoir | up to 5% of body’s blood volume |
| Function: excretion | nitrogenous wastes and salt in sweat |
| Skin cancer types | Basal cell carcinoma (least malignant, most common) Squamous cell carcinoma (second most common) Melanoma (most dangerous) |
| Basal cell carcinoma | Stratum basale cells proliferate and slowly invade dermis and hypodermis Cured by surgical excision in 99% of cases |
| Squamous cell carcinoma | Involves keratinocytes of stratum spinosum Most common on scalp, ears, lower lip, and hands Good prognosis if treated by radiation therapy or removed surgically |
| Melanoma | Involves melanocytes Highly metastatic and resistant to chemotherapy Treated by wide surgical excision accompanied by immunotherapy |
| Burns | damage: tissue damage, denatured protein, cell death) Immediate threat: Dehydration and electrolyte imbalance, leading to renal shutdown and circulatory shock |
| Rule of Nines | Used to estimate the volume of fluid loss from burns head and neck: 9% upper limbs: 18% trunk: 36% lower limbs: 36% perineum: 1% |
| Partial Thickness Burns | First degree Second degree |
| First Degree burn | Epidermal damage only Localized redness, edema (swelling), and pain |
| Second degree burn | Epidermal and upper dermal damage Blisters appear |
| Full Thickness Burn (3rd degree) | Entire thickness of skin damaged Gray-white, cherry red, or black No initial edema or pain (nerve endings destroyed) Skin grafting usually necessary |
| skeletal cartilage | Has no blood vessels 3 types: hyaline fibrocartilage elastic |
| types of bone growth | oppositional interstitial |
| interstitial growth | bones to grow in length |
| oppositional growth | bones grow in thickness (width) |
| axial skeleton | bones of the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage |
| appendicular skeleton | bones of the upper and lower limbs, shoulder, and hip |
| long bones | longer than they are wide (humerus, tibia, etc) |
| short bones | Cube-shaped bones (in wrist and ankle) Sesamoid bones (within tendons, e.g., patella) |
| Flat bones | Thin, flat, slightly curved |
| irregular bones | Complicated shapes |
| Functions of bones | Support – Protection – Movement – Mineral storage – Blood cell formation Triglyceride |
| Function: Support | form the framework that supports the body and cradles soft organs |
| Function: Protection | provide a protective case for the brain, spinal cord, and vital organs |
| Function: Movement | provide levers for muscles |
| Function: Mineral storage | reservoir for minerals, especially calcium and phosphorus |
| Function: Blood cell formation | hematopoiesis occurs within the marrow cavities of bones |
| Function: Energy storage | Triglyceride (energy) storage in bone cavities |
| Bone textures | Compact bone Spongy bone |
| Compact bone | Dense outer layer Made of osteons |
| Spongy (cancellous) bone | Made of honeycomb of trabeculae |
| Structure of a long bone | Diaphasis Medullary Cavity Epiphysis |
| Diaphasis | shaft of bone Compact bone collar surrounds medullary (marrow) cavity |
| Medullary Cavity | in adults contains fat (yellow marrow) |
| Epiphyses | Expanded ends Spongy bone interior Epiphyseal line (remnant of growth plate) Articular (hyaline) cartilage on joint surfaces |
| Membranes of bones | Peristeum Endosteum |
| Endosteum | Delicate membrane on internal surfaces of bone Also contains osteoblasts and osteoclasts |
| Peristeum | Outer: fibrous layer Inner: osteogenic layer Osteoblasts Osteoclasts Osteogenic cells (stem cells) Nerve fibers, nutrient blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels enter the bone via nutrient foramina Secured to underlying bone by Sharpey’s fibers |
| diploe | spongy bone in flat bones |
| Structure of Short, Irregular, and Flat Bones | Periosteum-covered compact bone on the outside Endosteum-covered spongy bone within Bone marrow between the trabeculae Have no diaphysis or epiphyses |
| Location of Hematopoietic Tissue (Red Marrow) | Adults: red marrow cavities Trabecular cavities of the heads of the femur and humerus Trabecular cavities of the diploë of flat bones Infants: red marrow Medullary cavities All spaces in spongy bone |
| Osteoblasts | bone forming cells |
| Osteoclasts | break down bone |
| Osteocytes | mature bone cells |
| Osteogenic (osteoprogenitor) cells | Stem cells in periosteum and endosteum that give rise to osteoblasts |
| Haversian system, or osteon | structural unit of compact bone |
| Lamellae | Weight-bearing Column-like matrix tubes |
| Chondrocytes | Are in between the lamella |
| Lacunae | small cavities that contain osteocytes |
| types of canals in compact bone | Perforating (Volkmann’s) canals Central (Haversian) canal Canaliculi |
| Perforating (Volkmann’s) canals | At right angles to the central canal Connects blood vessels and nerves of the periosteum and central canal |
| Central (Haversian) canal | Contains blood vessels and nerves |
| Canaliculi | hairlike canals that connect lacunae to each other and the central canal |
| Trabeculae | spongy bone align along lines of stress no osteons capillaries in endosteum supply nutrients Contain irregularly arranged lamellae, osteocytes, and canaliculi |
| Chemical Composition of Bone: Organic | osteoblasts osteoclasts, osteocytes, osteogenic cells, osteoid |
| Osteoid | organic bone matrix secreted by osteoblasts Ground substance (proteoglycans, glycoproteins) Collagen fibers Provide tensile strength and flexibility |
| Chemical Composition of Bone: Inorganic | Hydroxyapatites (mineral salts) |
| Hydroxyapatites (mineral salts) | 65% of bone by mass Mainly calcium phosphate crystals Responsible for hardness and resistance to compression |
| Osteogenesis | bone tissue formation |
| Stages of osteogenesis | Bone formation—begins in the 2nd month of development Postnatal bone growth—until early adulthood Bone remodeling and repair—lifelong |
| Types of Ossification | Intramembranous ossification Endochondral ossification |
| Intramembranous ossification | Membrane bone develops from fibrous membrane Forms flat bones, e.g. clavicles and cranial bones |
| Endochondral ossification | Cartilage (endochondral) bone forms by replacing hyaline cartilage Forms most of the rest of the skeleton Uses hyaline cartilage models Requires breakdown of hyaline cartilage prior to ossification |
| postnatal bone growth | interstitial oppositional |
| Growth in length of long bones | 4 zones: Proliferation (growth) Hypertrophic Calcification Ossification (osteogenic) |
| Growth Hormone | stimulates epiphyseal plate activity |
| Thyroid Hormone | modulates activity of growth hormone |
| Testosterone and estrogens (at puberty) | Promote adolescent growth spurts End growth by inducing epiphyseal plate closure |
| Bone Deposit | occurs where a bone is damaged which provides extra support person needs to have a healthy diet |
| Bone Reabsorption | osteoclasts secrete Lysosomal enzymes (digest organic matrix) Acids (convert calcium salts into soluble forms) |
| Hormones in bone (BONE GROWTH) | children: growth and thyroid hormone adults: estrogen or testosterone |
| Hormones for calcium homeostasis | when blood Ca is low: PTH increases activity of osteoclasts When blood calcium is high: Calcitonin increases activity of osteoblasts |
| Osteoporosis | loss of bone mass osteoclasts outpace osteoblasts |
| Osteomalacia | calcium salts not deposited which causes vitamin d deficiency |
| Rickets | childhood disease that causes bowed legs |
| Wolff's law | A bone grows or remodels in response to forces or demands placed upon ex. if right handed: bones of right hand are stronger than the left hand area where bone curves is thickest |
| Why is calcium necessary? | Transmission of nerve impulses Muscle contraction Blood coagulation Secretion by glands and nerve cells Cell division |
| cranial bones | frontal, pariteal, occipital, temporal, sphenoid, ethmoid |
| temporal bones projections | Zygomatic process Mastoid process Styloid process |
| temporal bones openings | External auditory/acoustic meatus where ear is Jugular foramen Carotid canal |
| mandibular fossa | Mandibular fossa – - Articulation: mandibular fossa articulates with the mandibular condyle of the mandible |
| occipital bone | contains: foramen magnum: for spinal cord occipital condyles external occipital protruberance hypoglossal canal |
| Sphenoid bone | Optic canal/foramen – between the 2 wings R - foramen rotundum O – foramen ovale S – foramen spinosum |
| Ethmoid bone | upper part of nasal septum – vertical plate |
| Sutures | joints between cranial bones |
| Corona suture | between frontal and parietal |
| sagittal suture | between parietal bones |
| Squamous suture | between temporal and parietal |
| lambdoid suture | between occipital and parie |
| Facial bones | Mandible Maxillae Palatine Zygomatic Nasal Lacrimal Vomer Inferior nasal concha |
| Mandible | lower jaw body ramus mandibular condyles – posterior projection of the ramus articulation: mandibular condyle articulates with mandibular fossa of the temporal bones coronoid process – anterior projection of the ram |
| nasal bone | forms the bridge of the nose |
| lacrimal bone | has a depression of the nasolacrimal duct |
| vomer | has a depression of the nasolacrimal duct |
| inferior concha | plates of bone in the nasal cavity |
| zygomatic bone | cheek bone forms the zygomatic arch with the zygomatic process of the temporal bone |
| hard palate | anteriorly – maxilla posteriorly – palatine bone |
| nasal septum | superior part – ethmoid bone inferior part – septal cartilage |
| fetal skull | Fontanels – spaces between cranial bones anterior fontanel – closes after 11/2 years posterior fontanel – closes at birth |
| Paranasal sinuses | Paranasal sinuses: mucus membrane lined air filled cavities of the bones maxillary sinus frontal sinus ethmoid sinus sphenoid sinus |
| Parts of the vertebal column | Cervical vertebrae – 7 Thoracic vertebrae – 12 Lumbar vertebrae – 5 Sacrum -1 Coccyx – 1 |
| vertebral curvatures | Cervical and lumbar Thoracic and sacral |
| scoliosis | abnormal lateral curvature |
| kyphosis | exaggerated thoracic curvature (hunchback) |
| Lordosis | exaggerated lumbar curvature |
| Intervertebral discs | between the vertebrae, made with fibrocartilage |
| Intervertebral foramen/mina | holes between the vertebra laterally. The spinal nerves emerge from it/them |
| cervical vertebrae | Special features of all cervical vertebrae: transverse foramen – on all cervical vertebrae Spinous process - bifid or divided and short – except C1, and C7 Small vertebrae |
| atlas: C1 | No body No spinous process Transverse foramen present Superior articular process – large Articulation: superior articular process articulates with the occipital condyle of the skull |
| Axis: C2 | body transverse foramen present |
| C3-C7 | Body small Spinous process bifid except C7 Transverse foramen C7 – vertebra prominence - spinous process is long – looks like in thoracic vertebrae |
| Lumbar vertebrae (5) | large vertebrae spinous process – short and thick, like a hatchet |
| Sacrum | forms posterior wall of the pelvis sacral foramina ala – laterally articulation: ala articulates with the auricular surfaces of hip bone (illium) |
| Coccyx | tail bone |
| Thoracic cage | thoracic vertebra sternum ribs and the costal cartilages |
| Sternum | manubrium – superior part articulation: manubrium articulates with the clavicle and 1st and 2nd ribs Body articulation: body articulates with costal cartilages xiphoid process |
| ribs | all attach posteriorly to vertebrae all attach anteriorly through costal cartilages to the sternum directly or indirectly |
| ribs 1-7 (true ribs) | Ribs 1-7- true ribs – attach directly to sternum through costal cartilages |
| ribs 8-12 (false ribs) | attach indirectly to sternum by joining costal cartilage of the rib above |
| ribs 11-12 (floating ribs) | no anterior attachment to the sternum |
| Parts of a rib | Head Articulation: head of the rib articulates with the demi facets on the vertebral body Neck Tubercle Articulation: tubercle of the rib articulates with the facet on transverse process |
| Appendicular | Pectoral girdle upper limb bones pelvic girdle lower limbs |
| Pectoral girdle: | Clavicle and scapula |
| upper limb bones | Arm, forearm, wrist, hand, fingers |
| pelvic girdle | Hip bones (2) |
| lower limbs bones | thigh, leg, ankle, foot, toes |
| clavicle | sternal end Articulations: Sternal end or medial end articulates with sternum acromial end Articulations: Acromial end or lateral end articulates with acromial process of scapula |
| Scapula | boarders superior, lateral and medial anterior surface: Corocoid process Subscapular fossa |
| Humerus | arm bone Superior end: Head of humerus – Articulation – head with the glenoid fossa of the scapula Neck |
| Humerus: Coronoid fossa | medial, on the anterior surface of humerus, above the trochlear Articulation: coronoid fossa articulates with the coronoid process of ulna when the elbow is flexed |
| Humerus: Radial fossa | lateral, on the anterior surface of humerus, above the capitulum articulation: radial fossa articulates with the radial head when the elbow is flexed |
| Humerus: Olecranon fossa | on the posterior surface of humerus articulation: olecranon fossa articulates with the olecranon process of the ulna when the elbow is extended |
| Carpal bones | 8 |
| Metacarpals | 5 |
| Phalanges | 14 2 in thumb 3 in each digit |
| Pelvic girdle | Hip bones: 3 Ileum (hands of hips) Ischium (sit on) Pubic (in the front) |
| true pelvis | below pelvic brim |
| Femur: Distal end: Medial condyle | medially Articulation: medial condyle articulates with the medical condyle of tibia |
| articulation | site where two bones meet |
| functions of articulations | Give the skeleton mobility Hold the skeleton together |
| Three functional classifications: | Synarthroses Amphiarthroses Diarthroses |
| Diarthroses | freely movable |
| Amphiarthroses | slightly movable |
| Synarthrosis | immovable |
| Three structural classifications | Fibrous Cartilaginous Synovial |
| Flexion | bending movement that decreases the angle of the joint |
| extension | reverse of flexion; joint angle is increased |
| abduction | movement away from the midline |
| adduction | movement toward the midline |
| circumduction | movement describes a cone in space |
| plantar flexion | extension of the foot (pointed toes) |
| dorsiflexion | flexion of the foot (flat foot) |
| Inversion | turn sole medially (sole inwards) |
| nonaxial | slipping movements only |
| uniaxial | movement in one plane |
| biaxial | movement in two planes |
| multiaxial | movement in or around all three planes |
| insertion | attachment to the movable bone |
| origin | attachment to the immovable bone |
| intracapsular | deep to capsule; covered by synovial membrane |
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