AP World History Summerville High School
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| Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile | monarchs of Christian kingdoms; their marriage created the kingdom of Spain; initiated exploration of the New World.
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| Hispaniola | first island in Caribbean settled by Spaniards; first settled by Columbus on his second voyage.
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| encomienda | grant of Indian laborers made to Spanish conquerors and settlers in Latin America; basis for earliest forms of coerced labor in Spanish colonies.
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| encomendero | the holder of a grant of Indians who were required to pay tribute or provide labor; responsible for their integration into the church.
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| Bartolomé de las Casas | Dominican friar who supported peaceful conversion of Native American population, opposed forced labor, and advocated Indian rights.
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| Hernán Cortés | led expedition to Mexico in 1519; defeated Aztec empire and established Spanish colonial rule.
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| Moctezuma II | last independent Aztec ruler; killed during Cortés’s conquest.
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| Mexico City | capital of New Spain; built on ruins of Tenochtitlan.
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| New Spain | Spanish colonial possessions in Mesoamerica in territories once part of Aztec imperial system.
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| Francisco Vácquez de Coronado | led Spanish expedition into the southwestern United States in search of gold.
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| Pedro de Valdivia | Spanish conqueror of Araucanian Indians of Chile; established city of Santiago in 1541.
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| mita | forced labor system replacing Indian slaves and encomienda workers; used to mobilize labor for mines and other projects.
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| Potosí | largest New World silver mine; located in Bolivia.
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| Huancavelica | greatest mercury deposit in South America; used in American silver production.
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| haciendas | rural agricultural and herding estates; produced goods for consumers in America; basis for wealth and power of the local aristocracy.
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| consulado | merchant guild of Seville with a virtual monopoly over goods shipped to Spanish America; handled much of the silver shipped in return.
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| galleons | large, heavily armed ships used to carry silver from New World colonies to Spain; basis of convoy system used for transportation of bullion.
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| Treaty of Tordesillas | concluded in 1494 between Castile and Portugal; clarified spheres of influence and rights of possession; in the New World, Brazil went to Portugal and the rest to Spain.
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| letrados | university-trained lawyers from Spain; basic personnel of the Spanish colonial bureaucratic system.
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| Recopilación | body of laws collected in 1681 for Spanish New World possessions; bases of law in the Indies.
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| Council of the Indies | Spanish government body that issued all laws and advised king on all issues dealing with the New World colonies.
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| viceroyalties | major divisions of Spanish New World colonies headed by direct representatives of the king; one based in Lima, the other in Mexico City.
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| viceroys | senior government officials in Spanish America; ruled as direct representatives of the king over the principal administrative units or viceroyalties.
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| audiencia | royal courts of appeals established in Spanish New World colonies; staffed by professional magistrates who made and applied laws.
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| Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz | 17th-century author, poet, and musician of New Spain; gave up secular concerns to concentrate on spiritual matters.
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| Pedro Alvares Cabral | Portuguese leader of an expedition to India; landed in Brazil in 1500.
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| captaincies | areas along the Brazilian coast granted to Portuguese nobles for colonial development.
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| Paulistas | backwoodsmen from São Paulo, Brazil; penetrated Brazilian interior in search of precious metals during the 17th century.
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| Minas Gerais | Brazilian region where gold was discovered in 1695; a gold rush followed.
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| Rio de Janeiro | Brazilian port used for mines of Minas Gerais; became capital in 1763.
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| sociedad de castas | Spanish American social system based on racial origins; Europeans on top, mixed races in the middle, Indians and African slaves at the bottom.
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| peninsulares | Spanish-born residents of the New World.
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| Creoles | people of European ancestry born in Spanish New World colonies; dominated local economies; ranked socially below peninsulares.
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| amigos del país | clubs and associations dedicated to reform in Spanish colonies; flourished during the 18th century; called for material improvement rather than political reform.
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| War of the Spanish Succession | (1702–1713); wide-ranging war fought between European nations; resulted in the installation of Philip of Anjou as king of Spain.
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| Charles III | Spanish monarch (1759–1788); instituted fiscal, administrative, and military reforms in Spain and its empire.
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| José de Galvez | Spanish Minister of the Indies and chief architect of colonial reform; moved to eliminate creoles from the upper colonial bureaucracy; created intendants for local government.
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| Marquis of Pombal | Prime Minister of Portugal (1755–1776); strengthened royal authority in Brazil, expelled the Jesuits, enacted fiscal reforms, and established monopoly companies to stimulate the colonial economy.
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| Comunero Revolt | a popular revolt against Spanish rule in New Granada in 1781; suppressed as a result of government concessions and divisions among rebels.
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| Tupac Amaru II | Mestizo leader of Indian revolt in Peru; supported by many in the lower social classes; revolt failed because of Creole fears of real social revolution.
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