Anthropology Exam 2~
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| Neolithic | New Stone Age; a prehistoric period beginning about 10,000 years ago in which peoples possessed stone-based technologies and depended on domesticated crops and/or animals for subsistence.
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| Mesolithic | The Middle Stone Age of Europe, Asia, and Africa beginning about 12,000 years ago
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| Archaic Cultures | The term used to refer to Mesolithic cultures in the Americas
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| Microlith | A small blade of flint or similar stone, several of which were hafted together in wooden handles to make tools; widespread in the Mesolithic
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| Natufian Culture | A Mesolithic culture from the lands that are now Israel, Lebanon, and western Syria, between about 10,200 and 12,500 years ago
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| Neolithic Revolution | The domestication of plants and animals by peoples with stone-based technologies, beginning around 10,000 years ago and leading to radical transformation in cultural systems
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| Horticulture | The cultivation of crops carried out with simple hand tools such as digging sticks and hoes
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| Pastoralism | The breeding and managing of migratory herds of domesticated grazing animals, such as goats, sheep, cattle, llamas, and camels
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| Innovation | Any new idea, method, or device that gains widespread acceptance in society
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| Primary Innovation | The creation, invention, or discovery by chance of a completely new idea, method, or device.
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| Secondary Innovation | The deliberate application or modification of an existing idea, method, or device
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| Domestication | An evolutionary process whereby humans modify, intentionally or unintentionally, the genetic makeup of a population of wild plants of animals, sometimes to the extent that members of the population are unable to survive and/or reproduce
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| Vegeculture | The cultivation of domesticated root crops, such as yams and taro
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| Diffusion | The spread of certain ideas, customs, or practices from one culture to another
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| Mesoamerica | The region extending from central Mexico to northern Central America
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| Civilization | In anthropology, societies in which large numbers of people live in cities, are socially stratified, and are governed by a ruling elite working through centrally organized political systems called states
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| Bronze Age | In the Old World, the period marked by the production of tools and ornaments of bronze; began about 5,000 years ago in China and SW Asia and about 500 years earlier in SE Asia
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| Grave Goods | Items such as utensils, figurines, and personal possessions, symbolically placed in the grave for the deceased person's use in the afterlife
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| Hydraulic Theory | The theory that explains civilization's emergence as the result of the construction of elaborate irrigation systems
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| Action Theory | The theory that self-serving action by forceful leaders plays a role in civilization's emergence
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| Ecosystem | A system, or a functioning whole, composed of both the natural environment and all the organisms living within it
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| Cultural Evolution | Cultural change over time -- not to be confused with progress
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| Progress | The ethnocentric notion that humans are moving forward to a higher, more advanced stage in their development toward perfection
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| Convergent Evolution | In cultural evolution, the development of similar cultural adaptations to similar environmental conditions by different peoples with different ancestral cultures
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| Parallel Evolution | In cultural evolution, the development of similar cultural adaptations to similar environmental conditions by peoples whose ancestral cultures are already somewhat alike
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| Food Foraging | A mode of subsistence involving some combination of hunting, fishing, and gathering of wild plant foods
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| Slash-and-Burn Cultivation | Extensive form of horticulure where natural vegetation is cut, slash is burned, and crops are planted in ashes
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| Agriculture | Intensive crop cultivation, employing plows, fertilizers, and/or irrigation
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| Peasant | A small-scale producer of crops of livestock living on land self-owned or rented in exchange for labor, crops, or money and exploited by more powerful groups in a complex society
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| Industrial society | A society in which human labor, hand tools, and animal power are largely replaced by machines, with an economy primarily based on big factories
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| Industrial food production | Large-scale businesses involved in mass food production, processing, and marketing, which primarily rely on labor-saving machines
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| Economic system | An organized arrangement for producing, distributing, and consuming goods
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| Technology | Tools and other material equipment, together with the knowledge of how to make and use them
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| Reciprocity | The exchange of goods and services, of approximately equal value, between two parties
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| Generalize reciprocity | A mode of exchange in which the value of the gift is not calculated, nor is the time of repayment specified
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| Balanced reciprocity | A mode of exchange in which the giving and the receiving are specific as to the value of the goods and the time of their delivery
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| Negative Reciprocity | A mode of exchange in which the aim is to get something for as little as possible
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| Kula ring | A form of balanced reciprocity that reinforces trade and social relations among the seafaring Melansians who inhabit a large ring of islands in the SW Pacific Ocean
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| Redistribution | A mode of exchange in which goods flow into a central place, where they are sorted, counted, and reallocated
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| Conspicuous Consumption | A showy display of wealth for social prestige
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| Potlach | A village chief publicly gives away stockpiled food and other goods that signify wealth
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| Prestige economy | The creation of a surplus for the express purpose of displaying weather and giving it away to raise one's status
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| Leveling Mechanism | A cultural obligation compelling prosperous members of a community to give away goods, host public feasts, provide free service, or otherwise demonstrate generosity
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| Market Exchange | The buying and selling of goods and services with prices set by rules of supply and demand
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| Money | A means of exchange used to make payments for other goods and services as well as to measure their value
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| Informal economy | A network of people producing and circulating marketable commodities, labor, and services that for various reasons escape government control
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| Power | The ability of individuals or groups to impose their will upon others and make them do things even against their own wants or wishes
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| Political Organization | The means through which a society creates and maintains social order and reduces social disorder
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| Band | A relatively small and loosely organized kin-ordered group that inhibits a specific territory and that may split periodically into smaller extended family groups that are politically independent
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| Tribe | The term for a rand of kin-ordered groups that are politically integrated by some unifying factor and whose members share a common ancestry, identity, culture, language, and territory
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| Chiefdom | A politically organized society in which several neighboring communities inhabiting a territory are united under a single ruler, who is at the head of a ranked hierarchy of people
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| State | A political institution established to manage and defend a complex, socially stratified society occupying a defined territory
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| Nation | A people who share a collective identity based on a common culture, language, territorial base, and history
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| Legitimacy | The right of political leaders to govern -- to hold, use, and allocate power -- based on the values a particular society embraces
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| Cultural Control | Control through beliefs and values deeply internalized in the minds of individuals
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| Social Control | External enforcement through open coercion
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| Sanction | An externalized social control designed to encourage conformity to social norms
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| Law | Formal rules of conduct that, when violated, lead to negative sanctions
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| Negotiation | The use of direct argument and compromise by the parties to a dispute to arrive voluntarily at a mutually satisfactory agreement
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| Mediation | The settlement of a dispute through negotiation assisted by an unbiased third party
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| Adjudication | A mediation with an unbiased third party making the ultimate decision
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| Carrying Capacity | The number of people that the available resources can support at a given level of food-getting techniques
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| Acculturation | The massive cultural change that occurs in a society when it experiences intensive firsthand contact with a more powerful society
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| Ethnocide | The violent eradication of an ethnic group's collective cultural identity as a distinctive people; occurs when a dominant society deliberately sets out to destroy another society's cultural heritage
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| Genocide | The physical extermination of one people by another, either as a deliberate act or as the accidental outcome of activities carried out by one people with little regard for their impact on others
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| Tradition | Customary ideas and practices passed on from generation, which in a modernizing society may form an obstacle to new ways of doing things
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| Syncretism | The creative blending of indigenous and foreign beliefs and practices into new cultural forms
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| Rebellion | Organized armed resistance to an established government or authority in power
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| Revolution | Radical change in a society or culture. In the political area, it involves the forced overthrow of an old government and establishment of a completely new one
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| Civil Disobedience | Refusal to obey civil laws in an effort to induce change in governmental policy or legislation, characterized by the use of passive resistance or other nonviolent means
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| Revitalization Movement | Efforts for radical cultural reform in response to widespread social disruption and collective feelings of great stress and despair
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