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A & P Part 1
Introduction, Chemical & Cellular Levels of Organization
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Anatomy | Science of body structures and their relationships among structures |
| Physiology | Science of body functions |
| Relationship between Anatomy & Physiology | Structure of a part of the body is adapted for performing certain functions |
| Levels of body organization | 1) Chemical, 2) Cellular, 3) Tissue, 4) Organ, 5) System, 6) Organismal |
| Systems of human body | Integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic & immune, respiratory, digestive, urinary, reproductive |
| Atoms | smallest units of matter that participate in chemical reactions |
| Molecules | two or more atoms joined together |
| Cells | smallest basic structural & functional units of an organism |
| Tissues | groups of cells of the same origin and function |
| Organs | structures with specific functions that are composed of two or more different types of tissues |
| System | related organs with common function |
| Organism | living individual |
| Metabolism | all chemical processes that occur in the body |
| Basic life processes | Metabolism, responsiveness, movement, growth, differentiation, reproduction |
| Differentiation | development of cells from unspecialized (stem cells) to specialized form |
| Death (clinically) | 1) Loss of heartbeat, 2) Absence of spontaneous breathing, 3) Loss of brain functions |
| Homeostasis | Dynamic equilibrium in the body’s internal environment produced by the interplay of all the body’s regulatory processes; Maintaining bodily fluid composition and volume |
| Feedback systems (loops) | Regulatory means to maintain homeostasis |
| Controlled condition | Variable being monitored |
| Stimulus | Any disruption that changes controlled condition |
| Components of feedback system | Receptor, control center, effector |
| Receptor | monitors controlled condition and informs control center |
| Control center | analyses input from receptor, generates output to effector |
| Effector | produces response that changes controlled condition |
| Types of feedback systems | Negative, positive |
| Negative feedback system | Response reverses original stimulus, reverse in controlled condition, maintenance of homeostasis; healthy people; physiological |
| Positive feedback system | - Response enhances or intensifies original stimulus; unhealthy people; pathalogical conditions |
| Example of negative feedback system | Raised blood pressure |
| Example of positive feedback system | Child birth, blood clotting |
| Symptoms | subjective changes |
| Signs | objective changes |
| Plane | imaginary flat surface that passes through body |
| Section | one flat surface of three-dimensional structure |
| Sagittal | vertical, divides into right & left sides |
| Midsagittal/median | vertical, divides into equal left & right sides; center of body |
| Parasagittal | anywhere, vertical, left & right sides |
| Frontal/coronal | vertical, divides into anterior & posterior |
| Transverse/horizontal/cross-sectional | horizontal, divides into superior & inferior |
| Oblique | at an angle between transverse plane and either sagittal or frontal plane |
| Ipsilateral | same sides |
| Contralateral | opposite sides |
| Proximal | appendiges only; closest to core |
| Distal | Appendiges only; furthest from core |
| Superficial | Closest to surface of skin |
| Deep | Furthest from surface of skin |
| Medial | Closest to midline of body |
| Lateral | Furthest from midline of body |
| Intermediate | In between |
| Anterior | ventral, closer to front of body |
| Posterior | Dorsal, closer to back of body |
| Superior | Closer to head |
| Inferior | Closer to feet |
| Body cavities | Dorsal, ventral |
| Dorsal cavity | cranial, vertebral canal |
| Ventral cavity | thoracic, abdominopelvic |
| Thoracic cavity | Pleural cavities (lungs), Mediastinum (between lungs), Pericardial (heart) |
| Abdominopelvic cavity | Abdominal, pelvic |
| Diaphragm | divides ventral body cavity |
| Viscera | organs |
| Abdominopelvic Regions | 2 Horizontal lines (subcostal, transtubercular); 2 vertical lines (subclavicular); R&L hypochondriac, epigastric, R&L lumbar, umbilical, R&L inguinal (iliac), hypogastric (pubic) = 9 total |
| Abdominopelvic Quadrants | 4 total; R&L upper, R&L lower; transverse and midsagittal lines through umbilicus |
| Chemical element | substance that cannot be split into simpler substances by chemical means |
| Known elements | 112 |
| Naturally occuring elements | 92 |
| Elements in human body | 26 |
| Major elements | 96% - H, C, O, N |
| Trace elements | 0.2% present in minute amounts; unknown function in some |
| Subatomic particles | Protons & neutrons (in nucleus); electrons (electron shells, determine chemical properties of atom) |
| Atomic number | number of p+ (characteristics for each element) |
| Mass number | Sum of protons and neutrons |
| Isotopes | atoms of the same element with different mass numbers (due to different numbers of neutrons) |
| Radioactive isotopes | Unstable |
| Ions | electrically charged atoms |
| Ionization | process of gaining or giving up electrons and thus turning into negative ions (anions) or positive ions (cations) |
| Molecule | group of 2 or more atoms (same or different) sharing electrons |
| Free radical | electrically charged atom or molecule with unpaired electron in its outermost shell; instability, high reactiveness; produced during metabolism; destructive to other molecules (cause aging, cancer etc.) |
| Antioxidants | substances containing 2 or more different elements |
| Compound | substance containing 2 or more different elements |
| Chemical bonds | hold molecules and compounds together |
| Types of bonds | covalent, ionic, hydrogen |
| Covalent bonds | most common, atoms or molecules share electrons, single double or triple, non-polar or polar |
| Ionic bonds | created, usually solids; if they are dissolved in water they dissociate into anions and cations and are called electrolytes |
| Hydrogen bonds | attraction of oppositely charged parts of molecules, weak bonds, important for creating links between and within molecules |
| Chemical reactions | formation or breakdown of bonds between atoms, foundation of life processes, reactants & products |
| Metabolism | all chemical reactions in the body |
| Chemical energy | form of E stored in bonds of molecules; endergonic and exergonic |
| Exergonic reaction | release chemical energy (dissociate) in the form of heat |
| Endergonic reaction | Require/absorb chemical energy (formation) |
| Catalyst | compounds that speed up chemical reactions (do not become part of product), unchanged, lower activation energy needed for reaction to occur |
| Types of chemical reactions | Synthesis-anabolism, Decomposition-catabolism, Oxidation-reduction (redox) |
| Catabolism | breakdown of complex chemical substances into simpler components |
| Anabolism | Buildup of simpler components into complex chemical substances |
| Synthesis | negative energy formation, endergonic |
| Decomposition | positive energy dissociation, exergonic |
| Oxidation-reduction | Oxidation: loss of electrons, decrease of energy of molecule; Reduction: gain of electrons, increase in energy of molecule |
| Inorganic compounds | simpler, smaller molecules, no carbon, ionic or covalent |
| Acids, bases, salts | compounds that dissociate (separate into ions) when dissolved in water |
| Acids | dissociate into hydrogen cations and anions |
| Bases | (alkaline substances): dissociate into hydroxide anions and cations |
| Salt | dissociates into cations and anions other than hydrogen and hydroxide |
| Hydrophobic | water fearing |
| Hydrophilic | water loving, easily dissolves in water, mainly polar covalent |
| Mixture | combination of substances not bound by chemical bonds |
| Solvent | solvent, substance of higher amount |
| Solution | dissolves another substance |
| Activation energy | collision energy needed to break the chemical bonds of reactants |
| Colloid | Larger particles, scatter light, do not settle out, translucent or opaque |
| Suspension | large particles, settle out |
| Water | Ideal medium for metabolism reactions, most abundant compounds in living systems, lubricant, high heat capacity, solvent |
| pH scale | expresses acidity and alkalinity of a solution, runs from 0-14 |
| Organic compounds | 40% body mass; contain carbon; large molecules, Macromolecules or polymers |
| Carbohydrates | Saccharides (sugars), mono-, di-, and poly- saccharides |
| Monosaccharides | single sugar unit, Glucose, fructose, galactose, deoxyribose, ribose; sweet |
| Disaccharides | two sugar units, Sucrose, lactose, maltose; sweet |
| Polysaccharides | many sugar units, glycogen, starch, cellulose; not sweet |
| Lipids | Insoluble in water, soluble in organic solvents |
| Triglycerides | Neutral fats and oils, saturated (single bonds, solid), unsaturated (double bonds, liquids) |
| Phospholipids | Major component of plasma membrane |
| Steroids | cholesterol, bile salts, vitamin D, steroid hormones |
| Cytology | the study of cells |
| Components of a cell | plasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus |
| Plasma membrane | cell membrane, seperates cell from extracellular environment, many functions, fluid mosaic model |
| Cytoplasm | cellular content between plasma membrane and nucleus, cytosol, organelles, nucleus |
| Cytosol | Fluid portion (water, solutes, suspended particles) intracellular fluid, site of metabolic reactions |
| Organelles | highly organized subcellular structures with specific functions, Functional compartments where specific physiological/metabolic processes take place |
| Nucleus | control center of cell |
| Components of plasma membrane | Lipid bilayer, membrane proteins |
| Lipid bilayer of plasma membrane | 1) phospholipids, 2) cholesterol, 3) glycolipids |
| Phospholipids of lipid bilayer | phosphate groups, 75%, amphipathic, spontaneous orientation into bilayer |
| Cholesterol of lipid bilayer | steroid with attached hydroxide group, 20%, strength and rigidity |
| Glycolipids | carbohydrate groups, 5%, protrude from outer surface, identity markers |
| Membrane proteins of plasma membrane | integral proteins, peripheral proteins, glycoproteins |
| Integral proteins | amphipathic, transmembrane proteins (span entire lipid bilayer and protrude both sides) |
| Peripheral proteins | only on inner or outer surface |
| Glycoproteins | carbohydrate groups, protrude outwards, identity markers (sugary parts, antenna's) |
| Functions of plasma membrane | channels, transporters, receptors, enzymes, cell-identity markers, linkers |
| Membrane permeability | selective, permeable small, nonpolar uncharged molecules |
| Concentration gradient | different distributions of substances |
| Electrical gradient | different distributions of charged particles |
| Electrochemical gradient | combination of different distributions of charged particles and substances |
| Nonmembranous organelles | cytoskeleton, centrosome, ribosomes |
| Cytoskeleton | long, fibrous, network of filamentous proteins, structural framework, cell shape & movement, proteins (microfilaments, intermediate filaments, microtubules) |
| Centrosome | centrioles and pericentriolar material, organizing of mitotic spindle, formation of cilia and flagella |
| Cilia | extensions that move substances along cell surface |
| Flagella | longer projections that move whole cell (tail of sperm) |
| Ribosomes | site of protein synthesis, composed of ribosomal RNA and proteins |
| Factors affecting faster diffusion | concentration gradient (fewer molecules), higher temperature, smaller particles, increasing surface area, decreased diffusion distance |
| Osmosis | anytime solutes are moving, diffusion of solvent (water) through selectively permeable membrane |
| Tonicity | affects volume and shape of cells by causing osmosis of water into or out of them; isotonic, hypertonic, hypotonic |
| Isotonic | always the same constant exchange of water |
| Hypertonic | too much crenation of cell, cell will shrivel |
| Hypotonic | too little/low cell will swell and rupture (lysis) |
| Active membrane transport | mediated, requires energy, substances move against concentration gradient (solute pumps) |
| Vesicle | membranous sack formed by budding off from an existing membrane |
| Endocytosis | within, receptor-mediated |
| Exocytosis | out, important in neurons and secretory cells |
| Transcytosis | movement into, across, or out of a cell |
| cell division | process by which cells reproduce themselves, reproductive and somatic cell division |
| Reproductive cell division | reductive, gametes undergo meiosis, number of chromosomes is reduced by half (in gonads) |
| Meiosis | special two-step division |
| Somatic cell division | mitosis, cytokinesis, division of parent cell's cytoplasm, two daughter cells |
| Mitosis | nuclear division, distribution of the two sets of chromosomes (duplicated) into two separate nuclei, exact division of genetic information |
| Cytokinesis | cytoplasmic division |
| Cell cycle of somatic cells | 1) Interphase, 2) Mitotic phase |
| Interphase of cell cycle | replication of DNA, DNA strands seperate, exposed N-base picks up complementary N-base, two identical DNA molecules are formed |
| Mitotic phase | 1) prophase, 2) metaphase, 3) anaphase, 4) telophase |
| Prophase | organization of genetic material into chromosomes, nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear and mitotic spindles appear |
| Metaphase | chromosomes align themselves on metaphase/equitorial plane |
| Anaphase | chromosomes move in opposite directions (split) |
| Telophase | chromosomes turn into chromatin, nuclear membrane and nucleolus re-appear |
| Cell death | apoptosis, necrosis |
| Apoptosis | regulated genetically programmed death |
| Necrosis | pathological cell death that results from cell injury |
| Protein synthesis | DNA stores info for synthesis of all proteins, genetic code, assembled in nucleolus |
| Genetic code | base triplet, determines position of one amino acid in protein chain, o DNA is in nucleus, protein synthesis takes place in cytoplasm (on ribosomes); info from DNA must get to ribosomes |
| Free | synthesize proteins used inside cell |
| Membrane bound | attached to nuclear membrane or rough endoplasmic reticulum; synthesize proteins for export or insertion of plasma membrane |
| Membranous organelles | endoplasmic reticulum (rough, smooth), golgi complex (apparatus), lysosomes, peroxisomes, proteasomes, mitochondria |
| Endoplasmic Reticulum | cisterns, extends from nuclear envelope through cytosol, 50% if membranous structures in most cells |
| cisterns | Network of membranes creating tubules and vesicles |
| Rough endoplasmic reticulum | studded with ribosomes, Proteins synthesized on ribosomes enter rough endoplasmic reticulum, processing and sorting of secretory and membrane proteins |
| Smooth endoplasmic reticulum | synthesizes phospholipids, steriods, other fats, Inactivates/detoxifies drugs, alcohol, pesticides, carcinogens |
| Golgi complex (apparatus) | 3-20 flattened cisterns, packaging of proteins, secretory vesicles, storage vesicles, membrane vesicles |
| Lysosomes | breakdown bodies, suicide sacks, 40 kinds of powerful digestive enzymes, break down of substances |
| Autophagy | digestion of worn-out organelles and release of components for reuse |
| Autolysis | destruction of whole cell |
| Peroxisomes | enzymes, participate in metabolism, detoxification |
| Proteasomes | degraded use or damaged proteins |
| Mitochondria | powerhouses of cells, bounded by cristae and smooth membranes (with matrix), site of aerobic phase of cellular respiration & ATP production |
| Components of nucleus | nuclear envelope, nucleolus/nucleoli, genetic material |
| Nuclear envelope | Double membrane continuous with rough endoplasmic reticulum, Perforated by large nuclear pores |
| nuclear pores | exchange between nucleus and cytoplasm |
| Nucleolus/Nucleoli | site of production of ribosomes, spherical |
| Genetic material | genes; Dispersed as chromatin in non-dividing cells; Organized as chromosomes in dividing cells |
| Membrane transport | active, passive (kinetic energy); mediated, nonmediated |
| Diffusion | random mixing of particles (solutes and solvent) in solutions as a result of constant movement of particles due to kinetic energy, happens in all directions |
| Diffusion through lipid bilayer | Small, nonpolar, fat-soluble molecules: O2, CO2, nitrogen, Fas, steroids, fat-soluble vitamins, ammonia |
| Diffusion through membrane channels | mostly ion channels, open all the time or gated, regulated by chemical and electrical changes inside and outside the cell |
| Facilitated diffusion | specific transporters with membrane, saturation |
| non-polar | soluble |
| polar | non-soluble |
| Transcription | info from DNA (sense strand) transcribed into the molecule of messenger RNA, Codons of mRNA are complementary to base triplets of DNA |
| complementary codons | Cytosine-Guanine, Thymine-Adenine, Adenine-Uracil (RNA only) |
| Translation | synthesis of protein (chain of AAs) according to sequence of codons (3 nucleotides/N-bases) within mRNA molecule |
| Process of transcription, translation | mRNA attaches to ribosome, tRNA carries specific amino acid, anticodon attaches to codon, amino acid is attached by peptide bond |
| polyribosome | more ribosomes attached to the same mRNA, translation of 1 mRNA into several identical proteins |
Created by:
rock-steady
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