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Exam 1-Terms to Know
All Terms to Know from Lectures 1-11
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Human Biology | The study of contemporary human biological variation |
| Anthropology | study of human experience |
| Scientific Method | Testing ideas, exploration and discovery: Observation, Hypothesis Formation, Hypothesis Testing, Theory Development |
| Hypothesis | proposed explanation for a phenomenon, based on observation |
| null hypothesis | the effect being studied does not exist - that no relationship exists between two variables |
| E. E. Just | -embryology, differentiation of cells, cellular development & cytoplasm (transcription factors) -inspired by sociology, metaphor of society applied to cell -diversity -> variety of world views, good for science (if we all thought the same, nothing new!) |
| Genetics | study of heredity |
| Epigenetics | changes gene expression without altering DNA sequence (chemical modification) -sensitive to environmental conditions- |
| Prokaryote | single cell organism, no nucleus (ex. bacteria) |
| Eukaryote | cells that have nucleus and organelles |
| Organelle | specialized structure within a single cell |
| Nucleus | contains genetic material/DNA |
| Mitochondria | powerhouse, makes ATP, has it's own mitochondrial DNA |
| Ribosome | fascilitates protein synthesis, contains tRNA (transfer) and mRNA (messenger) |
| Chromosome | structures of condensed DNA |
| somatic cell | body cell, diploid (46 chromosomes) |
| gamete | sex cell, haploid (23 chromosomes) |
| haploid | having 23 chromosomes, not complete pairs. only found in gametes |
| diploid | having 36 chromosomes (23 pairs), like body cells |
| homologous pair | the numbered pairs of chromosomes | pairs 1-22, excluding X Y chromosomes |
| DNA | Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid - genetic material |
| Nucleotides | Adenine <-> Thymine Guanine <-> Cytosine |
| Gene | sequence of nucleotides that codes for a protein |
| Transcription | FIRST - DNA is used as template to create messenger RNA (mRNA) MAKES mRNA |
| Translation | SECOND - Uses mRNA as a template to create a sequence of amino acids MAKES PROTEINS |
| RNA | a template for the production of proteins |
| mRNA | template in ribosomes that fascilitates protein synthesis |
| tRNA | uses mRNA to assemble proteins |
| Uracil vs Thymine | Uracil is RNA, Thymine is DNA BOTH attach to Adenine |
| Protein | Amino acids made in ribosomes |
| Mitosis | cell replication, produces 2 daughter cells |
| Meiosis | sexual cell replication, creates 4 genetically unique daughter cells called gametes |
| Mutation | error/mistake in DNA code can be beneficial, harmful, or neutral |
| Random assortment | Meiosis creates random combination of genes |
| Recombination / Crossing Over | Paired chromosomes physically swap segments of their arms, creating hybrid chromosomes that are part maternal and part paternal (only happens in sexual reproduction) |
| Sexual vs Asexual Reproduction | Sexual: Meiosis - 4 unique daughter cells Asexual: Mitosis - 2 identical daughter cells |
| STEPS of DNA replication | 1. Denaturation: bases separate 2. Annealing: new strands attach 3. Extension: process continues to create new identical strand |
| genotype | combination of alleles a person has inherited DNA |
| phenotype | individual's observable traits how DNA is expressed |
| allele | a variant of the sequence of nucleotides at a particular location, or locus, on a DNA molecule |
| Complex trait | influenced by more than 1 gene or environmental factor |
| Simple trait | one allele controls gene expression |
| dominance | a trait expressed in the presence of a different allele |
| recessive | a trait not expressed in the presence of a dominant trait |
| homozygous | having the same allele at the same locus on both chromosomes (TT, tt) |
| heterozygous | having different alleles at same locus (Tt) |
| punnett square | Represents the different ways alleles can be combined |
| ABO blood groups | 3 alleles, A & B are codominant, O is recessive |
| codominance | two alleles of the same gene are expressed in equal amounts in an organism (AB blood type) |
| Human Genome Project | -most traits are complex traits -most DNA is non-coding -way fewer genes than we thought |
| pedigree chart | A diagram of mating and offspring in a family over a span of generations |
| autosome | numbered homologous pairs |
| sex chromosomes | XX (female) and XY (male) other combinations - intersex |
| Why is sex a complex trait? | multiple genes control the hormonal, gonadal, and chromosomal expression of sex |
| gender | the social, cultural, and psychological constructions that are imposed on the biological differences of sex |
| gonads | reproductive organs (ovaries and testes) |
| sex steroid | testosterone - estrogen, progesterone |
| DSD | Differences of Sexual Development |
| DNA methylation | modification of transcription level - methyl group attach to DNA suppress gene expression |
| histone modification | DNA strand can be tightly or loosly wound around histones, affecting their ability to be expressed |
| microRNA | can attach to segment of DNA, blocking its expression |
| inter-generational epigenetic effects | Dutch hunger winter - pregnant women more likely to have ***** |
| Levels of regulation of gene expression | -DNA structure -transcription level (methylation & microRNA) -mRNA level (introns) (splicing) -translation level |
| epigenetic marks | features that regulate gene activity without changing genome. (ex: DNA methylation & histone modification) |
| hox genes | determine embryo development regulatory gene - controls expression of other genes |
| plasticity | ability to change - respond to environment |
| developmental plasticity | phenotype responds to environment during development (ex. mice in warm & cold weather - Dutch Hunger Winter) |
| taxon | a taxonomical category |
| Lamarck | Inheritance of acquired characteristics (giraffe necks growing longer - incorrect) |
| binomial nomenclature | organism's proper name (genus species) ex. Homo Sapiens |
| descent from a common ancestor | early idea of evolution - Erasmus Darwin |
| extinction | natural disasters killed most species, re-population follows - George Cuvier |
| competition for resources | rate of population increase > resources Thomas Malthus |
| evolution | change in allele frequencies of a population over time |
| homologies | similarities from a common ancestor ex. limb structure from fish! |
| analogies | similarities that didn't come from a common ancestor ex. wings in many different animals |
| species | A group of organisms that can interbreed to produce fertile offspring |
| adaptation | process of change by which an organism or species becomes better suited to its environment |
| natural selection | trait must be inherited for nat. sel. to act on it biological variation environment determines what's beneficial # offspring > resources for survival/reproduction competition greater fitness = survive & reproduce |
| modern synthesis | natural selection + genetic variation + Mendelian inheritance |
| genetic drift | Change in the frequency of a gene variant in a population due to random sampling of organisms *By chance! reduces diversity |
| founder effect | special type of genetic drift |
| gene flow | exchange of genes between population increases diversity |
| selectionist hypothesis | Most genetic variation is due to the process of natural selection |
| neutral theory | Most variation at the molecular level does not affect fitness *genetic variation is best explained by random processes |
| forces of evolution | natural selection mutation genetic drift gene flow |
| directional selection | natural selection favoring one extreme phenotype |
| ancestral trait | A trait shared because it was inherited from a common ancestor (limb bones from fish!) |
| derived traits | A trait that evolved in a specific lineage and distinguishes that lineage from its common ancestor (forward facing eyes in primates) |
| intraspecific variation vs. interspecific variation | intra = same species inter = different species |
| mammalian characteristics | -body fur -endothermy (warm-blooded) -long gestation -heterdont (different teeth) -big brain |
| primate characteristics | -forward facing eyes -grasping hands -erect posture -rounder brain case -social groups |
| phylogenetic tree | family tree - shows species descended from common ancestors |
| speciation | process of forming a new species |
| allopatric speciation | reproductive isolation ex. grand canyon squirrels |
| parapatric speciation | partial geographic separation ex. orioles |
| sympatric speciation | occurs within a population ex. large-eared bats |
| sexual dimorphism | when male and females of a species have different traits |
| ecological niche | match of a species to a specific environmental condition |
| heterodont | having different shaped teeth |
| endothermic | creating own body heat / warm-blooded |
| punctuated equilibrium vs. phyletic gradualism | punctuated = rapid change (staircase) gradual = steady slow change (tree) |
| adaptive radiation | burst of diversity Diversification of a group of organisms into forms filling different ecological niches |
| What makes a high quality diet? | proteins and fats |
| Hominoid | Humans, great apes, lesser apes LARGEST |
| Hominid | Humans, great apes MIDDLE |
| Hominin | humans, our direct ancestors SMALLEST |
| Human-Chimp Last Common Ancestor | 6 MILLION YEARS AGO chimp-like characteristics, quadrepedal |
| Ardipithecus | Ardie - small brain, wider pelvis |
| Australopithecus | adaptive radiation large teeth (ancestral) bipedal |
| Homo habilis | small face enchephalization - big brain stone tools |
| Homo erectus | long active period moved to other continents tools |
| Homo neanderthalensis | bigger brains than us interbreeded with homo sapiens |
| Homo sapien | US! EVOLVED 200-300 THOUSAND YEARS AGO |
| allometry | change in size of one biological measure with respect to another - ASSOCIATION usually body size |
| altricial | young are not mature/mobile from the moment of birth, need help! |
| enchephalization quotient | measure that describes how the observed brain size compares to the expected brain size based on body mass |
| High energy demands of the brain require: | -high quality diet -reduced gut size -born altricial (do brain development outside of womb) -rapid brain growth after birth -baby fat |
Created by:
egrgas
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