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Motor Control, 2010
MoveSci 110
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Human motor control | Study of how the body moves or is stabilized in space; movement and posture; basis for nearly all of our interactions with the environment and everything that we do |
| Golgi, Camillo | Discovered neuron (accidentally); said all neurons are interconnected (wrong) |
| Cajal, Santiago y | Neuron Doctrine; identified neurons as separate identities |
| Neuron Doctrine | Cajal; identifies neurons as the most functional and structural units of the nervous system |
| Broca, Paul | Broca's area (speech); expressive aphasia |
| Expressive aphasia | Lack of ability to express yourself through speech |
| Wernicke, Karl | Wernicke's area; receptive aphasia |
| Receptive aphasia | Inability to understand spoken words |
| Fritsch, Gustav and Hitzig, Edward | "Motor centers"; contralateral control (left side controls right, etc.); electrically stimulated dogs' brains |
| Brodmann, Korbinian | Cytoarchitechtonics; 53 different functional areas of cerebral cortex based on nerve structure |
| Sherrington, Sir Charles | Father of modern motor control; spinal cord is the "final common pathway"; coined "synapse" and "proprioception" |
| Simple reaction time test | "RT test"; reaction time, from fastest to slowest: kinesthetic, auditory, visual |
| Kinematic data | Received using motion analysis system; position, velocity, acceleration |
| Infrared corneal reflection (I-RCR) | Eye movements |
| Electromyography (EMG) | Balance and posture; measures electric activity of a contracting muscle |
| Physiological techniques (goal) | Determine the relationship between a particular structure or area of the brain and its role in the control of movement |
| How to record brain activity (humans) | fMRI, EEG |
| How to record brain activity (animals) | Intra-Cortical Microstimulation (ICMS) |
| Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging | fMRI; localizes neural activity by examining regional cerebral blood flow |
| Electroencephalography | EEG; measure electrical activity of brain on scalp; many trials have to be taken and averaged |
| Intra-Cortical Microstimulation (ICMS) | Gain access to brain area of interest, insert electrode into brain to record electrical activity from neurons while animal performs task; used as a guide in brain surgery |
| 2 approaches to determine the relation of a brain area to a control of movement | Record brain correlates of movement; stimulate/interfere with brain functions (observe deficits) |
| How to interfere with brain function (humans) | Transcranial magnetic stimulation: over part of brain (messes with brain), looks at temporal and spatial resolution; lesion studies (isolate groups) |
| How to interfere with brain function (animals) | Temporary or permanent lesions |
| Disadvantages of lesion studies | Lesion extent (hard to find exact same); rest of brain adapts (works around handicap) |
| 2 systems necessary for movement | Muscular and nervous |
| Muscular system | Creates movement via contraction/relaxation of muscle fibers; "motors" |
| Nervous system | Dictates muscle activity; "controllers"; CNS and PNS; all neurons and glia that are (CNS) or are not (PNS) entirely contained within the brain and/or spinal cord |
| Organization of the nervous system | Hierarchical: cord is "simple" compared to brain |
| Alphamotors | 31; neurons; only way to get a muscle to contract |
| Nucleus | Genetic center of the cell |
| Dendrites | Receive information from other neurons |
| Cell body | "Soma"; sums information from dendrites/other terminals |
| Axon | Transmits information from the cell body |
| Presynaptic Terminal | Attaches to other neurons to relay information |
| Neurons (classification) | Sensory, interneurons, motor |
| Sensory neurons | Deliver info to CNS from endings on the surface of the body and within muscles and tendons; give info about the body relative to environment; afferent |
| Afferent | Carrying information TO the CNS; sensory information |
| Interneurons | Bulk of CNS; perform processing functions (memory, planning, etc.); connect multiple neurons with (multiple) other neurons |
| (Alpha) Motor neurons | Neurons connected to muscle cells which cause muscle contractions; necessary to perform any voluntary movement; efferent |
| Efferent | Carrying info AWAY FROM the CNS |
| Glial cells | 6; "glue"; insulate, support, and nourish neighboring neurons; outnumber neurons 10:1 |
| Key glial cells | Oligodendrocytes, Schwann cells |
| Myelin | Fatty substance wrapped around neuron (insulates); covers the axons of neurons; speed up transmission of neural impulses |
| Action potentials (AP) | Electrical signals carried by neurons and muscle fibers; created by shift in membrane ions (K+, Na+) and is therefore measured as a change in voltage |
| 4 steps of neuromuscular communication | Resting membrane potential, depolarization, repolarization/hyperpolarization, restoration of RMP |
| Resting membrane potential | Ion concentrations are stable, with the net charge ~ -70mV |
| Depolarization | Ions (Na+) move inside the cell, making the voltage more positive. When the net charge reaches threshold (~ -55mV), an AP is imminent |
| Threshold (AP) | ~ -55mV |
| "All or none" (AP) | Need threshold: more (same reaction as threshold) or less (nothing will happen) |
| Repolarization/hyperpolarization | Ions shift back towards resting potential (-70mV) via K+ channels, but overcompensate by spamming cell membrane (greater than -70mV) |
| Restoration of RMP | Membrane slowly return to baseline level of -70mV |
| "Action potentials are propagated down the axon." | The part of the axon behind part A is preparing to do what A just finished |
| Principle of Dynamic Polarization | Cajal; one-way flow of AP |
| Cell-to-cell communication occurs via... | Synapses |
| Cell-to-cell communication | AP depolarizes the axon terminal, opening voltage-gated Ca2+ channels for Ca2+ to enter the cell, triggering exocytosis of synaptic vesicle contents. The neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft to bind with receptors on the postsynaptic cell. |
| Acetylcholine (ACh) | Is released to bind to receptor on muscle membrane; results in electrical stimulation of muscle (makes it contract) |
| Neuromuscular junction problems | Botulism (prevent ACh exocytosis); curare (blocks ACh receptors); black widow spider venom (inhibits vesicle recycling) |
| 3 different sensory receptors for each of the sense have 3 things in common: | Respond to a physical stimulus, convert stimulus to APs, give information to CNS |
| Sensation v. Perception | Sometimes a delay between sense and knowledge of it (we don't live life in "real time") |
| Light enters eye... | And is focused by lens onto retina. |
| Fovea | Detail and color at back of eye |
| Electrical signals from photoreceptors | Are transmitted to brain to allow for perception |
| How the lens focuses light rays on the retina | Refracts them |
| If an object moves closer to the eye, lens must | Change shape to keep focus |
| Accommodation | Changing lens shape |
| Flatten lens | Relax ciliary muscles; far objects |
| Rounded lens | Contract ciliary muscles; near objects |
| Hyperopia | Farsightedness; eyeball is too short, focal point behind retina; fixed by convex lenses (refracts light inward before entering eye) |
| Myopia | Nearsightedness; eyeball is too long, focal point in front of retina; fixed by concave lenses (refracts light outward before entering eye) |
| Photoreceptors | Light travels through retinal cells, reflects off back layer of eyeball, then stimulates photoreceptors; converts light energy to electrical signals at the retina; rearmost layer cells at retina |
| Photoreceptors (2 types) | Rods, cones |
| Rod | Mostly in peripheral retina; function well in low light; monochromatic; simpler |
| Cone | Most abundant at fovea; color vision; color pair; doesn't work well at night |
| Optic nerve | Second cranial nerve; ganglion cells |
| Optic disk | Optic nerve and blood supply to eye go through; no photoreceptors (creates blind spot) |
| Optic chiasm | Where ganglion cells from the nasal hemiretinas cross |
| Ganglion cells from the temporal hemiretinas stay or move? | Stay on the same side |
| Lateral geniculate body | Nerve takes info to thalamus (occipital lobe: primary visual cortex (V1)) |
| Focal distance | Distance between lens and retina |
| V1 projects to 2 streams | Ventral and dorsal |
| Ventral stream | Temporal lobe; "what" |
| Dorsal stream | Parietal love; "where" |
| Grandmother neurons | Face recognition neurons |
| Visual neglect | Stroke affecting right parietal cortex (dorsal stream); lose concept of "left" |
| Prosopagnosia | Stroke affecting ventral stream; difficulty recognizing faces |
| Muscles moving eyes | 6 extraocular muscles (3 pairs) |
| Agonist | Produces movement |
| Antagonist | Resists movement |
| Superior rectus/inferior rectus | Located above/below eye; elevates/depresses (looks above or below eye-level) |
| Lateral rectus/medial rectus | Located on either side of eye; abduction/adduction (turns eye away from/to midline) |
| Superior oblique/inferior oblique | Located above/below eye; starts at same place as rectus, but passes through a pulley; intorsion/extorsion (rotates eye); synergists (help the other muscles) |
| 3 cranial nerves controlling extraocular muscles | Oculomotor, trochlear, abducens |
| Oculomotor nerve | Superior rectus; medial rectus, inferior rectus, inferior oblique |
| Trochlear nerve | Superior oblique (pulley supporting superior oblique is called "trochlea") |
| Abducens | Lateral rectus (lateral rectus abducts) |
| Diplopia | Double vision |
| Eye movements | Saccades, smooth pursuit, vergence, vestibuloocular reflex, optokinetic nystagmus |
| Saccades | Very fast; quickly bring new areas of interest onto fovea; REM sleep; do NOT need to see to produce |
| Smooth pursuit | Track moving objects; maintain image on fovea; image NECESSARY to produce; match velocity of object to velocity of eye |
| Vergence | Eliminates retinal disparity |
| Optokinetic nystagmus | Shakes eye; nystagmus: driver's ed (alcohol) |
| Superior colliculus | Eye movements are controlled in the brain stem; affected by several cortical and subcortical sites |
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ktpognc
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