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BIOL 207 Exam One
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Characteristics of Microorganisms | Reproduce rapidly and cannot be seen directly. |
| Characteristics of Viruses | Parasitic, protein-coated, dependent on host, and are connected with human evolution. |
| What is the timeline of life from least recent to most recent? | Origin of Earth, prokaryotes, eukaryotes, insects, reptiles, mammals, and humans. |
| Anoxygenic Photosynthesis | Light-fueled conversion of carbon dioxide to organic material. This does NOT produce oxygen. |
| Oxygenic Photosynthesis | Light-fueled conversion of carbon dioxide to organic material. DOES produce oxygen. This is the source of oxygen on the planet. |
| What percent of the Earth's photosynthesis is produced by photosynthetic microorganisms? | 70% |
| What major group is not considered a microbe? | Mushrooms/Fungi |
| Three Useful Microbial Uses | Genetic engineering, recombinant DNA technology, and bioremediation. |
| Pathogens | Microbes that cause disease. |
| What are three examples of diseases that were once considered noninfectious but now are known to have microbial causes? | Gastric ulcers, diabetes, and schizophrenia. |
| Abiogenesis | Spontaneous Generation |
| Biogenesis | Opposite of Spontaneous Generation |
| Leeuwenhoek | Father of Microbiology |
| Koch | Scientist that formulized standards to identify germs with infectious disease. |
| Koch's Postulates | The same microorganisms are present in every case, the microorganism is isolated from dead animal, the disease is reproduced when put into healthy animal, and the microorganism is isolated from the specimen. |
| Nomenclature of Microbiology | Genus + Species |
| Woose-Fox Taxonomic System | Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya |
| Macromolecules | Large Molecules |
| Four Main Macromolecules | Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, and Nucleic Acids |
| Monosaccharide | 3 to 7 Carb Sugars |
| Examples of Monosaccharides | Glucose and Fructose |
| Disaccharide | Two Monosaccharides |
| Examples of Disaccharides | Maltose, Lactose, and Sucrose. |
| What makes up lactose? | Glucose + Galactose |
| What makes up sucrose? | Glucose + Fructose |
| Polysaccharide | Chain of monosaccharides. |
| Examples of Polysaccharides | Starch, cellulose, and glycogen. |
| Triglycerides | Fatty Acid + Glycerol |
| Phospholipids | Fatty Acid + Glycerol + Phosphate |
| Waxes | Mycolic Acid |
| Steroids | Cholesterol and Ergosterol |
| Nucleic Acids | Pentose Sugar + Phosphate + Nitrogenous Base |
| Purines | Type of nucleic acid. Examples: Adenine and Guanine |
| Pyrimidines | Type of nucleic acid. Examples: Cytosine, Thymine, and Uracil |
| How prokaryotic organisms are distinguished from eukaryotic organisms | The way their DNA is packaged, the makeup of their cell wall, and their internal structure. |
| What structural characteristics do ALL bacterial cells possess? | Cell membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, cytoskeleton, and one or more chromosomes. |
| What structural characteristics do MOST bacterial cells possess? | Cell wall and Glycocalyx -- a surface coating. |
| What structural characteristics do SOME bacterial cells possess? | Flagella, pili, fimbriae, an outer membrane, plasmids, inclusions, endospores, and an intracellular membrane. |
| What are the five bacterial forms? | Bacillus, vibrio, spirillum, and spirochete. |
| Bacillus | Cylindrical |
| Vibrio | A rod that is gently curved. |
| Spirillum | Spiral-Shaped |
| Spirochete | More kinky and flexible like springs. |
| Different Arrangement of Cocci | Streptococci, sarcina, staphylococci, and micrococci. |
| Streptococci | Chain of cocci |
| Sarcina | Two-by-two groups of cocci. |
| Staphylococci and Micrococci | Irregular clusters of cocci. |
| Flagella | Prokaryotic Propellers |
| Purpose of Flagella | Locomotion |
| Characteristics of Flagella | Three distinct parts (filament, hook, and basal body), many proteins, and 360 degree rotation. |
| Monotrichous | Single Flagellum |
| Lophotrichous | Small Bunches of Flagella |
| Amphitrichous | Flagella on Both Poles of Cells |
| Peritrichous | Flagella Dispersed Randomly |
| Chemotaxis | Bacteria move in response to chemical signals. |
| What happens during chemotaxis? | Receptors bind to extracellular molecules which triggers flagellum, to rotate. |
| What are runs? | Smooth linear movement towards a stimuli. |
| What are tumbles? | Flagellar rotation reverses causing the cell to stop and change its course. |
| Prokaryotic Appendages | Fimbriae and Pili |
| Fimbriae | Appendages used for attachment. |
| Pili | Appendages used for attachment and genetic exchange during conjugation. |
| Characteristics of Glycocalyx | Composed of polysaccharides, proteins, or both, vary in thickness, and creates a film to avoid phagocytosis. |
| Characteristics of Capsule | Bound tightly to cell, denser and thicker than the slime layer, and visible with negative staining. |
| Characteristics of the Cell Envelope | Repeating chains of long glycan (sugar) chains crossed by short peptide fragments, present in most bacteria, and provides strength to resist osmotic pressure rupture. |
| Characteristics of a Gram-Positive Cell | Thick peptidoglycan, one membrane, and teichoic acid or lipoteichoic acid. |
| Characteristics of a Gram-Negative Cell | Thin peptidoglycan. lipopolysaccharide, two membranes, and porins. |
| Lipopolysaccharide | Located in the outermost layer of the outer membrane in gram negative bacteria. |
| Cytoplasmic Membrane | Lipid bilayer with proteins embedded. |
| Role of Cytoplasmic Membrane | Provides a site for reactions and regulates the passage of nutrients in and out of the cell. |
| Characteristics of Cytoplasm | 70-80% water, is the site for nearly all chemical reactions, and contains DNA in the nucleoid. |
| Plasmids | Nonessential pieces of DNA. |
| What are the two subunits of a prokaryotic ribosome? | 30S and 50S |
| What is the total size of the ribosome subunits in prokaryotes? | 70S |
| What is the total size of the ribosome subunits in eukaryotes? | 80S |
| What is the role of inclusions/granules? | Storage bodies for nutrients. |
| What is the role of prokaryotic cytoskeletons? | Cell division, protection, shape, etc. |
| Bacterial Endospores | Dormant, resistant bodies found in clostridium, bacillus species. |
| Example of Bacterial Endospores | Spores of clostridium can get embedded in wounds, germinate, grow, and release toxins into the bloodstream. |
| Obligate Intracellular Parasites | Parasites that can only reproduce when they invade a specific host cell. |
| What are the four classification systems for viruses? | Host and disease caused, structure, chemical composition, and similarities in genetic makeup. |
| What important structure do viruses lack? | Protein-Synthesizing Machinery |
| Viruses only have parts necessary for... | Invading and controlling a host. |
| Viruses Parts | External Coat, Inner Core, 1 or 2 enzymes, capsids, envelope, nucleocapsid, spikes, and virion. |
| Capsid | A protein shell that surrounds the nucleic acid. |
| Nucleocapsid | Capsid fused with a nucleic acid. |
| Envelope | External covering of the nucleocapsid. |
| What is the only component that naked viruses have? | A Nucleocapsid |
| Spikes | Project from the envelope or capsid and allow viruses to dock with host cells. |
| Virion | A fully formed virus that is able to establish a connection. |
| Characteristics of Capsids | Most prominent feature of virus, and are composed of capsomeres, identical protein subunits. |
| Three Different Orientations of Capsids | Helical, icosahedral, and complex. |
| Viruses contain ____ or ____ but NOT both. | DNA;RNA |
| Four Configurations of Viruses | Single-stranded, double-stranded, linear, and circular. |
| What are almost all RNA viruses? | Double-Stranded |
| What are two single-stranded RNA viruses? | Positive-sense RNA and Negative-sense RNA |
| Positive-Sense RNA | Ready for immediate translation. |
| Negative-Sense RNA | Must be converted before translation can occur. |
| Role of Polymerase | Synthesizes DNA and RNA |
| Role of Replicase | Copies RNA |
| Reverse Transcriptase | Synthesizes DNA from RNA |
| Phases of the Animal Viral Replication Cycle | Adsorption, Penetration and Uncoating, Synthesis, Assembly, and Release |
| What is adsorption? | Invading of the host cell ONLY by EXACT fit. The exact fit is determined by host ranges. |
| Host Range | The type of organism that a virus can invade. Ex: Hepatitis B can only invade liver cells in humans. |
| Tropism | Specificities of viruses for certain tissues. |
| What is the penetration and uncoating phase of the animal viral replication cycle? | The cell membrane of the host is penetrated by the virus or just its nucleic acid. Then, the enzymes in the vacuole disrupt the envelope and capsid causing the virus to fuse with the wall of vesicle. |
| What happens in between the penetration and uncoating phase and the synthesis phase of animal viral replication? | The viral nucleic acid is released into the cytoplasm. |
| What happens in the synthesis phase of animal viral replication? | In DNA viruses, the virus enters the host's nucleus, replicates, and assembles there. In RNA viruses, the virus replicates and assembles in the cytoplasm. In retroviruses, the virus turns RNA genomes into DNA. |
| What happens in the assembly phase of animal viral replication? | New viruses are assembled using the parts created in the synthesis phase. |
| What happens in the release phase of animal viral replication? | Viruses are released in numbers dependent on the size of the virus and the health of the host cell. |
| Cytopathic Effects | Virus-induced cell damage that alters the host cells microscopic appearance. |
| Example of Cytopathic Effects | Changes in the shape or size of the host cell. |
| Inclusion Bodies | Compacted masses of viruses or damaged cell organelles in the nucleus and cytoplasm. |
| Synctia | The fusion of multiple host cells into large cells containing nuclei. |
| Characteristics of Persistent Infections | The cell harbors the virus, infected cells are not immediately lysed, viruses can last a few weeks or the remainder of the hosts life, and the virus can remain latent in the hosts cytoplasm. |
| Example of Persistent Infections | Provirus is incorporated into the DNA of the host cell and can remain hidden for years. |
| Chronic Latent State | Viruses awoken when triggered. Ex: Herpes |
| What are two noncellular infectious agents? | Prions and viroids. |
| Prions | Altered/Misfolded Proteins |
| Example of a Prion | Spongiform Encephalopathies --- prions in the brain that can remain latent for years before symptoms. |
| Example of Encephalopathy in Humans | Creutzfeldt-Jacob Disease --- causes gradual degeneration and death. |
| Example of Encephalopathy in Animals | Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy --- "Mad Cow Disease" |
| Viroids | Other noncellular infectious agents that are composed of naked strands of RNA. |
| Examples of Macronutrients | Oxygen, Hydrogen, Carbon |
| Examples of Micronutrients | Manganese, Zinc, Nickel |
| Hetertrophs | Obtain carbon in organic forms from other sources. |
| Autotrophs | Uses inorganic CO2 from itself and can convert CO2 to organic compounds. |
| Phototrophs | Microbes that photosynthesize. |
| Chemotrophs | Microbes that gain energy from chemical compounds. These are the majority of the microbes that cause human disease. |
| Intracellular Parasites | Parasites that live within a cell. |
| Obligate Parasites | Parasites unable to grow outside of a living host. |
| Two Forms of Passive Transport | Diffusion and Osmosis |
| Diffusion | Movement from a high concentration to a low concentration. |
| Osmosis | Diffusion through a selectively permeable membrane. Flow continues until both sides are equal. |
| One form of Active Transport | Endocytosis |
| Endocytosis | A form of active transport where the cell encloses a substance in membrane. |
| Two Forms of Endocytosis | Phagocytosis and Pinocytosis |
| Phagocytosis (eating) | Amoebas and white blood cells ingest whole cells or large solid matter. |
| Pinocytosis (drinking) | Cells ingest liquids like oil/molecules in solution. |
| Cardinal Temperature | The range of temperatures for growth of a microbial species. |
| Optimal Temperature | The intermediate temperature allows for the fastest rate of growth and metabolism in cells. |
| Psychrophiles | Capable of growth at 0 degrees celsius, storage at room fridge incubates them, they usually live in rivers, polar ice, or the deep ocean. These are rarely pathogenic. |
| Psychotrophs | Grow slowly in the cold, optimum temp 15-30 degrees celsius, able to grow at fridge temp and can cause food-borne disease. Examples: Staph and listeria |
| Mesophiles | These are the majority of medically significant microorganisms, grow between 20-40 degrees celsius, inhibit animals and plants, and human pathogens have an optimal temp from 30-40 degrees celsius. |
| Thermoduric | Can survive short exposure to high temperatures but are normally mesophiles, usually contaminate heated or pasteurized foods. Examples: Bacillus and Clostridium |
| Thermophiles | Grow optimally at temps 45 degrees and higher, live in environments associated with volcanic activity and compost. |
| Extreme Thermophiles | Heat requirements 80 + degrees celsius. |
| Obligate Aerobes | Organisms that cannot grow without oxygen. |
| Facultative Aerobes | Do not REQUIRE oxygen for metabolism but use it when available. |
| Microaerophiles | Do NOT grow at normal atmospheric conditions of oxygen but require a small amount of oxygen in metabolism. |
| Capnophiles | Organisms that grow best at higher CO2 tension than normally present in the atmosphere. |
| A | Organisms that thrive in acidic environments. |
| Thermoplasma | Lives in coal piles at highly acidic environments. |
| Alkalinophiles | Organisms that thrive in high alkaline conditions (non-acidic). |
| Proteus | Create alkaline conditions that neutralize urine -- causing urinary tract infections. |
| Five Stages of Binary Fission | 1.) A Young Cell 2.) Chromosome is replicated and the new and old chromosomes move to different sides of the cell. 3.) The protein bond forms in the center of the cell. 4.) The Septum Begins to Form 5.) The septum is complete and the cells divide. |
| Generation Time | The time required for a complete fission cycle. |
| THe Population Growth Curve | A predictable pattern of a bacterial population's growth in a closed system. |
| Stages in the Normal Growth Curve | The lag phase, exponential growth, stationary growth, and the death phase. |
| The Lag Phase | Flat Growth |
| Exponential Growth | Growth increases geometrically. |
| Stationary Growth | Cell birth and death rates are equal. |
| Death Phase | Cells begin to die at exponential rates. |
| What does the exponential phase make humans more susceptible to? | Antimicrobial Agents and Heat |
| What are actively growing cells more vulerable to? | Conditions that disrupt cell growth and division. |
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