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ANTH 1001
Exam 1 chaters 1,2,3,4,13,14
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Belief | A firmly held opinion or conviction typically based on spiritual apprehension rather than empirical proof. |
| Cultural Relativism | The anthropological practice of suspending judgment and seeking to understand another culture on its own terms sympathetically enough so that the culture appears to be a coherent and meaningful design for living. |
| Empirical | Evidence that is verifiable by observation or experience instead of relying primarily on logic or theory. |
| Faith | Complete trust or confidence in the doctrines of a religion, typically based on spiritual apprehension rather than empirical proof. |
| Holism | The idea that the parts of a system interconnect and interact to make up the whole. |
| Hominins | Species that are regarded as human, directly ancestral to humans, or very closely related to humans. |
| Human Adaptation | The ways in which human bodies, people, or cultures change, often in ways better suited to the environment or social context. |
| Hypothesis | Explanation of observed facts; details how and why observed phenomena are the way they are. Scientific hypotheses rely on empirical evidence, are testable, and are able to be refuted. |
| Knowledge System | A unified way of knowing that is shared by a group of people and used to explain and predict phenomena. |
| Law | A prediction about what will happen given certain conditions; typically mathematical. |
| Participant Observation | A research method common in cultural anthropology that involves living with, observing, and participating in the same activities as the people one studies. |
| Subdisciplines | The four major areas that make up the discipline of anthropology: biological anthropology, cultural anthropology, archaeology, and linguistic anthropology. Applied anthropology is sometimes considered to be a fifth |
| Subfield | refers to the different specializations within biological anthropology, including primatology, paleoanthropology, molecular anthropology, bioarchaeology, forensic anthropology, and human biology. |
| Theory | An explanation of observations that typically addresses a wide range of phenomena. |
| Scientific Understanding | Knowledge accumulated by systematic scientific study, supported by rigorous testing and organized by general principles. |
| Human Variation | The range of forms of any human characteristic, such as body shape or skin color. |
| Adenosine Triphosphate ATP | A high-energy compound produced by mitochondria that powers cellular processes. |
| Allele | A nonidentical DNA sequence found in the same gene location on a homologous chromosome, or gene copy, that codes for the same trait but produces a different phenotype. |
| Amino Acid | Organic molecules that are the building blocks of protein. Each of the 20 different amino acids have their own unique chemical property. Amino acids are chained together to form proteins. |
| Ancient DNA aDNA | DNA that is extracted from organic remains and that often dates from hundreds to thousands of years ago. Also, aDNA is typically degraded (i.e., damaged) due to exposure to the elements such as heat, acidity, and humidity. |
| Autosomal | Refers to a pattern of inheritance in which an allele is located on an autosome (non sex chromosome). |
| Base Pairs | Chemical bonding between nucleotides. In DNA, adenine (A) pairs with thymine (T) and cytosine (C) pairs with guanine (G); in RNA, adenine (A) always pairs with uracil (U). |
| Carbohydrate | Molecules composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms that can be broken down to supply energy. |
| Cell Cycle | A cycle the cell undergoes with checkpoints between phases to ensure that DNA replication and cell division occur properly. |
| Chromosome | DNA molecule that is wrapped around protein complexes, including histones. |
| Codominance | The effects of both alleles in a genotype can be seen in the phenotype. |
| Codons | A sequence that comprises three DNA nucleotides that together code for a protein. |
| Deoxyribonucliec Acid DNA | A molecule that carries the hereditary information passed down from parents to offspring. DNA can be described as a “double helix”’ shape. It includes two chains of nucleotides held together by hydrogen bonds with a sugar phosphate backbone. |
| Diploid | Refers to an organism or cell with two sets of chromosomes. |
| DNA Methylation | Methyl groups bind DNA, which modifies the transcriptional activity of a gene by turning it “on” or “off.” |
| DNA Polymerase | Enzyme that adds nucleotides to existing nucleic acid strands during DNA replication. These enzymes can be distinguished by their processivity (e.g., DNA replication). |
| DNA Replication | Cellular process in which DNA is copied and doubled. |
| DNA Sequence | The order of nucleotide bases. A DNA sequence can be short, long, or representative of entire chromosomes or organismal genomes. |
| Dominant | Refers to an allele for which one copy is sufficient to be visible in the phenotype. |
| Enzymes | Proteins responsible for catalyzing (accelerating) various biochemical reactions in cells. |
| Epigenetics | Changes in gene expression that do not result in a change of the underlying DNA sequence. These changes typically involve DNA methylation and histone modifications. These changes are reversible and can also be inherited by the next generation. |
| Eukaryote | Single-celled or multicelled organism characterized by a distinct nucleus, with each organelle surrounded by its own membrane. |
| Exon | Protein-coding segment of a gene. |
| Gametes | Haploid cells referred to as an egg and sperm that will fuse together during sexual reproduction to form a diploid organism. |
| Gene | Segment of DNA that contains protein-coding information and various regulatory (e.g., promoter) and noncoding (e.g., introns) regions. |
| Genetic Recombination | A cellular process that occurs during meiosis I in which homologous chromosomes pair up and sister chromatids on different chromosomes physically swap genetic information. |
| Genome | All the genetic information of an organism. |
| Genotype | The combination of two alleles that code for or are associated with the same gene. |
| Genotyping | A molecular procedure that is performed to test for the presence of certain alleles or to discover new ones. |
| Germ Cells | Specialized cells that form gametes (egg and sperm cells). |
| Haploid | Cell or organism with one set of chromosomes (n = 23). |
| Helicase | A protein that breaks the hydrogen bonds that hold double-stranded DNA together. |
| Heterozygous | Genotype that consists of two different alleles. |
| Histones | Proteins that DNA wraps around to assist with DNA organization within the nucleus. |
| Homologous Chromosomes | A matching pair of chromosomes wherein one chromosome is maternally inherited and the other is paternally inherited. |
| Homozygous | Genotype that consists of two identical alleles. |
| Incomplete Dominance | Heterozygous genotype that produces a phenotype that is a blend of both alleles. |
| Interphase | Preparatory period of the cell cycle when increased metabolic demand allows for DNA replication and doubling of the cell prior to cell division. |
| Introns | Segment of DNA that does not code for proteins. |
| Karyotyping | The microscopic procedure wherein the number of chromosomes in a cell is determined. |
| Lagging Strand | DNA template strand that is opposite to the leading strand during DNA replication. This strand is created in several disconnected sections and other enzymes fill in the missing nucleotide gaps between these sections. |
| Lipids | Fatty acid molecules that serve various purposes in the cell, including energy storage, cell signaling, and structure. |
| Meiosis | The process that gametes undergo to divide. The end of meiosis results in four haploid daughter cells. |
| Mendelian Genetics | A classification given to phenotypic traits that are controlled by a single gene. |
| Microbiome | The collective genomes of the community of microorganisms that humans have living inside of their bodies. |
| Mitochondrion | Specialized cellular organelle that is the site for energy production. It also has its own genome (mtDNA). |
| Mitosis | The process that somatic cells undergo to divide. The end of mitosis results in two diploid daughter cells. |
| Molecular Anthropologists | Individuals who use molecular techniques (primarily genetics) to compare ancient and modern populations and to study living populations of humans and nonhuman primates. |
| Molecular Genetics | Biologists that study the structure and function of genes. |
| Mutation | A nucleotide sequence variation from the template DNA strand that can occur during replication. Mutations can also happen during recombination. |
| Nucleic Acid | A complex structure (like DNA or RNA) that carries genetic information about a living organism. |
| Nucleotide | The basic structural component of nucleic acids, which includes DNA (A, T, C, and G) and RNA (A, U, C, and G). |
| Nucleus | Double-membrane cellular organelle that helps protect DNA and also regulates nuclear activities. |
| Pedigree | A diagram of family relationships that indicates which members may have or carry certain genetic and/or phenotypic traits. |
| Phenotype | The physical appearance of a given trait. |
| Phospholipid Bilayer | Two layers of lipids that form a barrier due to the properties of a hydrophilic (water-loving) head and a hydrophobic (water-repelling) tail. |
| Polygenic Trait | A phenotype that is controlled by two or more genes. |
| Prokaryote | A single-celled organism characterized by the lack of a nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles. |
| Protein | Chain of amino acids that folds into a three-dimensional structure that allows a cell to function in a variety of ways. |
| Protein Synthesis | A multi-step process by which amino acids are strung together by RNA machinery read from a DNA template. |
| Recessive | Refers to an allele whose effect is not normally seen unless two copies are present in an individual’s genotype. |
| Ribonucleic Acid RNA | Single-stranded nucleic acid molecule.There are different RNAs found within cells and they perform a variety of functions, such as cell signaling and involvement in protein synthesis. |
| RNA Polymerase | An enzyme that catalyzes the process of making RNA from a DNA template. |
| Sister Chromatids | During DNA replication these are produced on the chromosome. In cell division, sister chromatids are pulled apart so that two cells can be formed. In meiosis, sister chromatids are also the sites of genetic recombination. |
| Somatic Cells | Diploid cells that comprise body tissues and undergo mitosis for maintenance and repair of tissues. |
| Sugar Phosphate Backbone | A biochemical structural component of DNA. The “backbone” consists of deoxyribose sugars and phosphate molecules. |
| Transcription | The process by which DNA nucleotides (within a gene) are copied, which results in a messenger RNA molecule. |
| Translation | The process by which messenger RNA codons are read and amino acids are “chained together” to form proteins. |
| Leading Strand | DNA template strand in which replication proceeds continuously. |
| Artificial Selection | The identification by humans of desirable traits in plants and animals, and the subsequent steps taken to enhance and perpetuate those traits in future generations. |
| Carrying Capacity | The number of living organisms, including animals, crops, and humans, that a geographic area can support without environmental degradation. |
| Comparative Anatomy | Georges-Louis Leclerc’s technique of comparing similar anatomical structures across different species. |
| Empiricism | The idea that all learning and knowledge derives from experience and observation. It became prominent in the 17th and 18th centuries in western Europe due to the rise of experimental science. |
| Evolution | a change in allele (gene) frequencies from one generation to the next among members of an interbreeding population. |
| Exant | Still in existence; surviving. |
| Extinct | Said of a species, family, or other group of animals or plants that has no living members; no longer in existence. |
| Fixity of Species | The idea that a species, once created, remains unchanged over time. |
| Gene | A sequence of DNA that provides coding information for the construction of proteins. |
| Genetic Drift | Random changes in allele frequencies within a population from one generation to the next. |
| Gene Flow | The introduction of new genetic material into a population through interbreeding between two distinct populations. |
| Gene Pool | The entire collection of genetic material in a breeding community that can be passed from one generation to the next. |
| Macroevolution | Large and often-complex changes in biological populations, such as species formation. |
| Microevolution | Changes in the frequency of a gene or allele in an interbreeding population. |
| Modern Synthesis | The mid–20th century merging of Mendelian genetics with Darwinian evolution that resulted in a unified theory of evolution. |
| Natural Selection | process by which the survival/reproductive success of individuals /groups within an interbreeding population that are best adjusted to their environment leads to better genetic qualities best suited to that particular environment at that point in time. |
| Scientific Method | A method of procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th century, consisting of systematic observation, measurement, experimentation, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses. |
| Speciation | The process by which new genetically distinct species evolve from the main population, usually through geographic isolation or other barriers to gene flow. |
| Species | A group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals capable of exchanging genes or interbreeding. The species is the principal natural taxonomic unit, ranking below a genus and denoted by a Latin binomial (e.g., Homo sapiens). |
| Allopatric Speciation | Speciation caused by long-term isolation (physical separation) of subgroups of the population |
| Artificial Selection | Human-directed assortative mating among domestic animals, such as pets and livestock, designed to increase the chances of offspring having certain desirable traits. |
| Crossover events | Chromosomal alterations that occur when DNA is swapped between homologous chromosomes while they are paired up during meiosis 1 |
| Directional Selection | A pattern of natural selection in which one phenotype is favored over the other, causing the frequencies of the associated advantageous alleles to gradually increase. |
| Disruptive Selection | A pattern of natural selection that occurs when both extremes of a trait are advantageous and intermediate phenotypes are selected against (a.k.a. diversifying selection). |
| Evolution | A change in the allele frequencies in a population over time. |
| Founder effect | A type of genetic drift that occurs when members of a population leave the main or “parent” group and form a new population that no longer interbreeds with the other members of the original group. |
| Stabilizing selection | A pattern of natural selection that occurs when the extremes of a trait are selected against, favoring the intermediate phenotype |
| Gene flow | The movement of alleles from one population to another. This is one of the forces of evolution. |
| Genetic drift | Random changes in allele frequencies within a population from one generation to the next. This is one of the forces of evolution. |
| Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium | A mathematical formula (1=p^2 + 2pq + q^2 ) that allows estimation of the number and distribution of dominant and recessive alleles in a population. |
| Macroevolution | Changes that result in the emergence of new species, how the similarities and differences between species, as well as the phylogenetic relationships with other taxa, lead to changes that result in the emergence of new species. |
| Microevolution | Changes in allele frequencies within breeding populations—that is, within a single species. |
| Modern synthesis | The integration of Darwin’s, Mendel’s, and subsequent research into a unified theory of evolution |
| Mutation | A change in the nucleotide sequence of the genetic code. This is one of the forces of evolution |
| Natural selection | An evolutionary process that occurs when certain phenotypes confer an advantage or disadvantage in survival and/or reproductive success. This is one of the forces of evolution, and it was first identified by Charles Darwin. |
| polymorphisms | Multiple forms of a trait; alternative phenotypes within a given species. |
| Population bottleneck | A type of genetic drift that occurs when the number of individuals in a population drops dramatically due to some random event. |
| sexual selection | An aspect of natural selection in which the selective pressure specifically affects reproductive success (the ability to successfully breed and raise offspring) |
| speciation | The process by which a single population divides into two or more separate species. |
| species | Organisms whose individuals are capable of breeding because they are biologically and behaviorally compatible to produce viable, fertile offspring. |
| sympatric speciation | When a population splits into two or more separate species while remaining located together without a physical (or cultural) barrier. |
| Migration | The movement of individuals into or out of a population, bringing new alleles. |
| interbreeding | The exchange of genetic material between different populations when individuals from different populations mate. |
| evolutionary fitness | the ability of an organism to survive and reproduce, passing on its genetic material to the next generation |
| Adaptation | Alteration in population-level gene frequencies related to environmentally induced selective pressures; leads to a greater level of fitness for a population related to a specific environment. |
| Conduction | Mechanism of heat transfer between objects through direct contact. |
| Convection | Movement of heat away from a warm object to the cooler surrounding fluid (i.e., gas or liquid). |
| Convergent evolution | Evolutionary process whereby organisms that are not closely related independently evolve similar traits as a product of adaptation to similar evolutionary parameters. |
| Homeostasis | Condition of optimal functioning for an organism. |
| Phenotypic Plasticity | Ability of one genotype to produce more than one phenotype dependent on environmental conditions |
| Stressor | Any stimulus resulting in an imbalance in an organism’s homeostatic balance |
| Continuous variation | This term refers to variation that exists between individuals and cannot be measured using distinct categories. differences between individuals within a population in relation to one particular trait are measurable along a smooth, continuous gradient. |
| Eugenics | A set of beliefs and practices that involves the controlled selective breeding of human populations with the hope of improving their heritable qualities |
| Human Variation | Differences in biology, physiology, body chemistry, behavior, and culture. By measuring these differences, we understand the degrees of variation between individuals, groups, populations, or species. |
| Otherness | In postcolonial anthropology, we now understand “othering” to mean any action by someone or some group that establishes a division between “us” and “them” in relation to other individuals or populations |
| polygenic | Having many different ancestries, as in older theories about human origins that involved multiple traditional groupings of humans evolving concurrently in different parts of the world before they merged into one species through interbreeding |
| Prejudice | An unjustified attitude toward an individual or group that is not based on reason, whether positive (and showing preference for one group of people over another) or negative (and resulting in harm or injury to others). |
| race | The identification of a group based on a perceived distinctiveness that makes that group more similar to each other than they are to others outside the group. |
| racism | Any action or belief that discriminates against someone based on perceived differences in race or ethnicity |
| variance | In statistics, variance measures the dispersal of a set of data around the mean or average value |
| Physical anthropology | the study of human origins, evolution and variation, |
| biological anthropology | a branch of anthropology that focuses on when and where humans and our human ancestors first originated, how we have evolved and adapted globally over time, and the reasons why we see biological variation among humans worldwide today |
| biological determinism | The concept that an individual’s behavioral characteristics are innate / determined by genes, brain size, or other physiological attributes—and, notably, without the influence of social learning or the environment around the individual during development |
| Bipedalism | walking on 2 feet |
| polymorphic | site where more than one allele can occur |
| monogenic | a single gene gives rise to a trait |
| pleiotropic traits | are several traits controlled by a single gene |
| Gender | socially and culturally constructed roles behaviors expressions and identities of gender diverse people |
| sex | biological attributes of animals based on physical features, genes, chromosomes, hormones |
| fixation | where only one allele remains |
| mutation | increases variation within population increases variation between populations random |
| genetic drift | decreases variation within population increases variation between populations random |
| gene flow | increases variation within population decreases variation between populations random |
| natural selection | decreases variation within population increases or decrease between populations Non-Random |
| Acclimation | when an individual organism experiences a change in its phenotype in response to an environmental stressor. |
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