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Anthropology Unit 1
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| How old is the Universe? | 13.77 (+/- 0.4) billion years old (ga) |
| How old is the Earth? | 4.5 billion years old (ga) |
| When was the oldest confirmed life found? | 3.5 billion years ago (ga) |
| When was the Cambrian explosion? | 541-513 million years ago (ma) |
| When did vertebrates appear? | 525 million years ago (ma) |
| Example of Descent with Modification: | All body plans of contemporary vertebrates |
| What occurred from the Cambrian Explosion? | The appearance of: Vertebrates, Fish, major animal phyla and bilateral symmetry |
| When was the Cretaceous Extinction? | 66.5-66 million years ago (ma) |
| What occurred from the Cretaceous Extinction? | The extinction of dinosaurs and the opportunity for primates to occupy ecological niches that were vacated by the loss of dinosaurs |
| When did the earliest primate appear? | 65.9 million years ago (ma) |
| How long ago did Homo sapiens sapiens appear? | 286 (+/-32) thousand years ago (ka) |
| What is happening now? | Climate change, species extermination, and plant toxification |
| What is holistic anthropology? | Looking at the parts in relation to the whole picture. Using all parts of anthropology to explain human behavior |
| What are the sub-fields of anthropology? | Biological, Cultural, Applied, Archaeology, and Linguistics |
| What is biological anthropology? | The study of human variation and evolution |
| What do human paleontologists use? | The fossil record, comparative anatomy of fossils, genetic studies of contemporary populations, and excavation |
| What does human variation use? | Comparative morphology and genetics |
| What do anthropological linguists do? | Study human languages |
| What is sociolinguistics? | The study of cultural and subculutral languages in social contexts |
| What is descriptive linguistics? | The study of how languages are constructed |
| What is historical linguistics? | The study of human language relativity and how it changes over time |
| What is cultural anthropology? | The study of living cultures and their social relationships |
| What do ethnographers do? | Describing other cultures after immersing themselves in them |
| What do cross-cultural researchers do? | Classify, explain and compare what is found through ethnographic descriptions |
| What do ethnohistorians do? | Use historical documents to study a certain time period in a culture and how that culture changes through time |
| What is archaeology? | The study of material remains or artifacts from past cultures |
| What are types of archaeology? | Prehistorical, historical, classical, Egyptology, and biblical |
| What is applied anthropology? | Solves specific problems. Doesn't try to generate new knowledge |
| Example of applied anthropology: | Forensic anthropology |
| Who was Charles Darwin? | Promoted natural selection as the method of evolutionary changes |
| Theory of Evolution Step 1 | 1: There is genetic variation among individuals within a population |
| Theory of Evolution Step 2 | 2: Some variations may influence reproductive success |
| Theory of Evolution Step 3 | 3: Some individuals are better able to cope with the environment and contribute offspring to succeeding generations |
| Theory of Evolution Step 4 | 4: A change in allele frequency occurs; Genes that are better adapted survive while poorly adapted do not. |
| What is creationism? | The belief that the universe and living organisms originate from specific acts of divine creation, as in the biblical account, rather than by natural processes such as evolution |
| What is the key to evolution? | Variation |
| Why is variation the key to evolution? | Inherited differences between individuals of a species which may differentially affect their ability to reproduce successfully |
| What is a factor producing variation? | A mutation |
| What is a mutation? | A change in the base sequence in DNA, or a "copying" error that occurs during meiosis |
| What are the 4 DNA bases? | Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine |
| What is microevolution? | Short term changes in allele frequency occurring over a few generations |
| Example of microevolution | Pepper Moths in Manchester, England (1850) |
| What is a genetic code? | A set of instructions for the production of proteins from amino acids |
| What are factors of redistributing variation? | Genetic Recombination/Sexual Mating; Gene Flow and Genetic Drift |
| What is genetic recombination/sexual mating? | The recombination of genes (alleles) to form unique individuals with unique genotypes |
| What is Gene Flow? | Gene exchange between breeding populations |
| What is Genetic Drift? | Random changes in the frequency of genetic representation over time |
| What is a factor reducing variation? | Natural Selection |
| What is natural selection? | Differential net reproductive success |
| What are the 3 types of natural selection? | Directional, Normalizing, and Balancing |
| What is directional selection? | A shift in the average |
| Example of directional selection | Cranium size in humans |
| What is normalizing selection? | Extreme values removed |
| Example of normalizing selection | Birth weight and birth canal |
| What is balancing selection? | Heterozygote is favored |
| Example of balancing selection | Sickle Cell Anemia |
| How can speciation work? | Through cladogenesis (branching), or anagenesis (lineal |
| What is cladogenesis? | A species diverges into two or more species |
| What is anagenesis? | Evolution within a lineage |
| What are prosimians? | "Pre-apes"; lemurs, lorises and tarsiers |
| What are anthropoids? | "Human like"; Old world monkeys, new world monkeys, apes, and humans |
| What are Platyrrhines? | New world monkeys |
| What are Catarrhines? | Old world monkeys and Hominoids |
| What are Hominoids? | Apes and humans |
| What are Hominids? | The greater apes and humans |
| Hominin | Africa |
| Pan | Chimpanzees and Bonobos |
| Homo | Humans and all their ancestors in the genus Homo |
| Purgatorius Mckeeveri, 65.9 ma | Probable first primates |
| Archicebus achilles | Earliest undisputed primate |
| 33.9 ma | Oligocene |
| Parapithacids | 3 premolars (same as NW monkeys) |
| Propliopithecids | 2 premolars (same as OW monkeys and hominoids) |
| What are cranial features of primates? (1) | -Expansion and increased complexity of the brain -Shortened muzzle -Muzzle positioned low relative to brain case -Foramen Magnum angled downward instead of backward |
| What are cranial features of primates? (2) | -Eyes positioned toward front of face -Color vision -Eye sockets enclosed by postorbital bar -Eyes surrounded by none -Decreased reliance on sense of smell |
| Generalized dentition in primates | -2-1-2-3 OWM, apes, humans -2-1-3-3 NWM -Omnivorous diet |
| Post cranial features of primates | -Retention of 5 digits -Opposable thumbs -Prehensility -Nails instead of claws -Retention of the clavicle -2 bones in lower portion of leg -single birth |
| When did the last common ancestor between chimps and the line which led to humans likely live? | Between 4.5 and 5 Ma |
| What are Australopithecus afarensis and when did they appear? | Earliest undisputed bipedal hominid; 3.72 Ma |
| When did Homo erectus appear? | 1.89 Ma |
| When did Homo sapiens neanderthalensis appear? | 400-440 Ka |
| What year and where did Homo sapiens sapiens appear? | 315-286/196 Ka; Ethiopia and Morocco |
| Characteristics of human primates (1) | -Largest brains relative to body weight -Virtually no muzzle -Capable of complex learning -Cultural response is central human adaptive strategy (clothing, or fire) -Highly advanced use of symbolic communication |
| What is bipedalism? | Walking on 2 hind limbs; a controlled fall |
| Characteristics of the human cranium | -Head balanced atop spinal column permits side-to-side scanning motion -Along with binocular vision, humans can find objects against visual clutter |
| Characteristics of human spine | -S-shaped -Vertebrate is shorter and wider than other primates |
| Characteristics of human pelvis | -Shorter and flatter, flared outward -Gluteus Maximus is largest muscle in humans, positioned in back of pelvis -Gluteus Maximus and hamstrings extend longer than femur, creating greater leverage for stride |
| Characteristics of human knee | -Medial angle of femur to tibia: 101 degrees -Center of gravity remains along centerline of body while walking |
| Characteristics of human foot | -Strictly weight bearing -Big toe enlarged, parallel to other toes -Transverse and longitudinal arches |
| Characteristics of apes that differ from humans (1) | -Quadruped's weight distributed between 4 limbs -Quadruped spine arched/bridge-shaped -Gluteus Maximus positioned on side of apes |
| Physical/Behavioral characteristics of ancestors of Great apes and contemporary great apes | -Small brains -Fur -Quadruped/knuckle walking -Live in jungle |
| Physical/behavioral characteristics of australopithecines | -Small brains -Fur? Likely lost 3 ma -Bipedal with remnant arboreal skeletal adaptations -Lived on savanna |
| Physical/behavioral characteristics of Homo | -Large brains -Virtually hairless -Obligate terrestrial bipeds |
| Advantages of large brains and bipedalism on surface area exposed to the sun | -Bipedalism: less -Quadrupedalism: more |
| Advantages of large brains and bipedalism on Heat transfer | -Hairlessness/large heads: fast -Fur: slow |
| Advantages of large brains and bipedalism on cooling systems | -Evaporative: more -Convective: less |
| Advantages of large brains and bipedalism on ability to run long distances in heat | -Homo sapiens: great -Almost any other species: virtually none |
| Because humans are social they: | -Hunt in groups -Share strategy |
| Because humans have large brains: | -Anticipation of animal behavior -Trap -Track |
| Negative consequences of bipedalism | -Carb loss -Sodium loss -Water loss |
| What is acclimatization and when does it develop? | A short-term physiological response to environmental change. Usually developed in early childhood |
| Example of acclimatization | Tanning |
| What is clinal adaptation? | A gradual change in allele frequency over geographic space |
| Example of clinal adaptation | Skin color |
| Difference between dark skin and light skin? | Dark skin produces more melanin than light skin |
| What does melanin do? | Absorbs UV rays, causing them to lose energy, and neutralizes cancer-causing free radicals |
| Dark skin is a long-term evolutionary adaptation that protects against | -Melanoma -Hypervitaminosis D (Kidney failure) -Folate destruction which causes spina bifida and a great reduction in spermatogenesis |
| White skin is a long term evolutionary adaptation that protects against | Rickets by ensuring adequate amounts of vitamin D |
| What is Polymorphism? | A trait with more than one allele in appreciable frequency |
| What is Balanced polymorphism? | The maintenance of 2 or more alleles in a population due to the selective advantage of the heterozygote |
| What are polymorphic adaptations? | Polymorphism and Balanced polymorphism |
| What is lactose intolerance? | The inability to fully digest fresh milk products (classic example of microevolution) |
| How did societies become lactose tolerant? | Some societies became culturally dependent on milk |
| Infectious diseases | Sickle cell allele and malaria |
| Bergmann's rule | Body size is greater in colder climates while it's smaller in warmer climates because there's more surface area to cooling air |
| Allen's rule | Shorter appendages are in colder climates because they are more effective at preventing heat loss while longer appendages are in warmer climates because they promote heat loss |
| Gloger's rule | In sunnier climates; skin or feathers tend to be darker or more colorful |
| Heat | -Hairlessness and evaporative cooling through 1.6 million sweat glands -Vasodilation (Blood vessels dilate) |
| Cold | -Clothing and dwellings for heat retention and increased calorie intake for heat production -Shivering is inefficient because it transfers heat from body to surface -Blood vessels constrict -Higher metabolism -Brown adipose fat stops shivering |
| High elevation | -Hypoxia: less oxygen -Acute mountain sickness -Human tolerance: 28,000 ft |
| High elevation physical adaptations | -Larger chest/sternum -more red marrow in ribs -more blood cells |
| Monge's disease | sudden, mysterious loss of adaptation to high elevation. Probable cause: smoking |
| Natural short sleepers | A mutation where they need as little as 4-6 hours of sleep per night and feel fine |
| Other benefits for natural short sleepers | -More optimistic -more energetic -don't suffer jet lag -live longer |
| Salient Features | The most frequently used criteria for ordering variation |
| Racism | Is a result of the tendency to classify and value |
| The great chain of being | Was and continues to be a value ranking of human groups: God, angels, humans, animals, plants, minerals Devil |
| Justification for slavery | Story of Noah's son who was cursed into slavery, he was in Africa and that cursed anyone from Africa (blacks) |
| Linnaeus (1735) | Believed different species of humans looked different (black vs white vs asian etc.) |
| Top down approach | Civilization was all equal and then slowly people became better than others |
| Morgan/Bottom up approach | All people started out as savages and some rose to become civilized while others did not |
| Circuses | Had people from other countries be the entertainment |
| Ota Benga | African Pygmy on display in the Bronx Zoo; Put with the Orangutan to be the "MISSING LINK" |
| Eugenics | The philosophy of "race improvement" through the forced sterilization of members of some groups and increased reproduction among others |
| Example of Eugenics | California sterilized over 20,000 and Nazi Germany wanted advice |
| Great Replacement Theory | White supremacists want to instill fear in white people that minorities and people of color will take power away from whites |
| Franz Boas | the first white social scientist to minimize the importance of race as a determinant of human behavior |
| When are forensic anthropologist called? | When a body is too decayed to be of use to a pathologist |
| How a body becomes a skeleton | 1: fresh 2: Bloating 3: Decay 4: Dry |
| Variable Effect: Temperature | 5 |
| Variable Effect: Access by insects | 5 |
| Variable Effect: Burial and Depth | 5 |
| Variable Effect: Carnivore/rodent access | 4 |
| Variable Effect: Trauma | 4 |
| Variable Effect: Humidity/aridity | 4 |
| Variable Effect: Rainfall | 3 |
| Variable Effect: Body size and weight | 3 |
| Variable Effect: Clothing | 2 |
| Variable Effect: Surface body rests on | 1 |
| What is a variable effect? | The variables affecting decomposition rate of the human body |
| Heat (2-4 weeks) promotes | -Activity of scavengers -"self digestion" (Enzyme autolysis) -Bacterial Activity (putrefaction) |
| Cold (many years) promotes | -Flies inactive -Maggots -Body tissue decaying -insects -bowflies -beetles |
| Feed on exfoliating skin | -spiders -carnivores: dogs, coyotes, foxes etc. -Burial |
| Water | A body in the water decomposes 4x faster due to low humidity |
| Rainfall | Slows fly activity and reduces amount of maggots |
| Clothing | speeds up decay as it provides the shade maggots seek |
| How to avoid becoming a skeleton | Mummification |
| Mummification | Partial or total preservation of soft tissue; both oxygen and water are required for decomposition to occur |
| Natural mummification | A person drops dead in a place conductive to preservation |
| Intentional mummification | A person drops dead and other people put him in a place conductive to preservation |
| Artificial mummification | A person drops dead and other people stuff him like a taxidermist |
| What bones tell us (1) | -Sex: cranium and hip -Age: Ossification of epiphyseal disks and sutures -Height and stature -Appearance of living person: facial reconstruction |
| What bones tell us (2) | -Manner of death -Who did it -Region of residence -Diet |
| Natural and intentional preservation by | Desiccation |
| Desiccation | rapid drying in air or sand |
Created by:
Colleen.hoke
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