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Test 2 Study Guide
Covers 11-14
| What type of resistance are bacterial endospores? | Highest Resistance |
| What are bacterial endospores for? | Survival |
| What type of Microbes fall under Moderate Resistance? (Hint: There's 4) | Protozoan cysts, fungal sexual spores, naked viruses, & resistant vegetative bacteria |
| What are naked viruses? (Hint: What is it that they do not have?) | Viruses with no coat |
| What type of Microbes fall under Least Resistance? (Hint: There's 4) | Most bacterial vegetative cells, fungal spores, enveloped viruses, yeasts |
| What are fungal sexual spores for? | Reproduction |
| What does vegetative mean? | Microbes are happy, reproduce, & at prime time in life |
| What does it mean for something to be sterilized? | Free from ALL living things |
| T/F: Sterilization is achieved with heat. | True, it is performed with heat. |
| What is a common process of sterilization? | Autoclaving |
| What are chemicals that are used to sterilize called? | Sterilants |
| What is disinfection used on? | Objects |
| What does disinfection not kill? | Bacterial endospores & viruses |
| T/F: Disinfection also remove toxins. | Yes, it does. |
| What is the purposeful target of disinfectants? | Vegetative pathogens |
| What are 3 common examples of disinfectants? | 5% beach solution, boiling water, iodine solutions |
| What is sepsis? | Growth of microorganisms in the blood or other body organs |
| What is antiseptic? | The disinfection of living things |
| What are asepsis techniques used for? | To avoid contamination |
| What is sanitization? | Reduces contamination to safe levels for use or consumption |
| What are examples of sanitizers? | Soap or detergent |
| What does it mean for something to be sanitary? | The disinfection of what we intake (ex. food and water) |
| What does the suffix -cide mean? | To kill |
| What is Sporicide? | Destruction of bacterial endospores |
| What does the prefix Stasis and Static mean? | To stand still, prevent multiplication |
| What is microbiostatic used for? | Controlling microorganism growth |
| What can affect to microbial death? (Hint; There's 6) | Number of microorganisms, level of resistance, temperature, pH, concentration and mode of action of agent |
| What are the 4 targets of antimicrobial agents? | 1. Cell wall 2. Cell membrane 3. Protein & Nucleic Acid Synthesis 4. Protein Function |
| What is the cell wall made up of? | Peptidoglycan |
| What are the 4 antimicrobial effects on Cell Wall? | 1. Blocks its synthesis 2. Digests it 3. Breaks down its surface 4. Becomes fragile and lyses easily |
| What is the cell membrane made up of? | Phospholipids |
| What is our "fences" in a cell? | Cell membrane |
| How is the cell membrane disrupted? | It looses its selective permeability |
| What type of surfactant disrupts membrane? | Detergents |
| Antimicrobial effects what levels of Protein & Nucleic Acid Synthesis? | Replication, Transcription, and Translation |
| Where does Replication, Transcription, and Translation occur in the following: DNA ↓ RNA ↓ Proteins | DNA ----- Replication ↓ ----- Transcription RNA ↓ ----- Translation Proteins |
| How is Translation stoped in Protein & Nucleic Acid Synthesis? | Binds to Ribosome |
| How is Transcription and Translation prevented in Protein & Nucleic Acid Synthesis? | Binds irreversibly to DNA |
| What are proteins made up of? | Amino Acids |
| What must a protein be in, in order to function properly? | It's native state |
| What is the Antimicrobial effect on Proteins Function? | Denatures proteins by breaking bonds of the secondary and tertiary |
| T/F: Elevated temperatures are microbicidal. | True, they kill. |
| What is microbiostatic? What does it do to temperature, does it lower or elevate it? | It lowers temperature to slow reproduction |
| What are two types of heat? | Moist and dry heat |
| Which heat is more effective, moist or dry heat? | Moist heat |
| How is moist heat effective? | It denatures |
| How is dry heat effective? | It removes water from organisms |
| What is an example of dry heat? | Incineration or cremation |
| What does the autoclave use to raise the temperature? | Pressurized steam |
| What is the most efficient pressure-temperature combination of sterilization? | 15 psi which yields 121°C |
| What is pasteurization? | Disinfects while still retaining flavor and nutritional value in liquids and food |
| What are some examples of where pasteurization is used? | Milk, cheese, fruit juices |
| Is boiling water for disinfection or sterilization or both? | Disinfection only |
| How long should you boil water to make disinfection most effective? | 30 minutes |
| How does incineration work? | Ignites and reduces microbes to ashes |
| What are dry ovens used for? | Heat-resistant items that don't sterilize well with moist heat |
| What are the effects of cold temperatures on cultures and microbes? | To slow growth |
| T/F: Cold kills most microbes. | False, it preserves them but doesn't kill them. |
| What is the preservation of cultures and Microbes called? | Microbiostatic |
| What occurs when a vegetative cell is desiccated? | Dehydration of the cell - which means it controls the removal of water |
| Is radiation a physical method of control? | Yes, it disrupts DNA/proteins |
| T/F: Filtration can be used as a physical method of control. | Yes |
| What is HEPA? | A form of filtration that uses high-efficiency particulate air for filter. |
| Can alcohols be used be as antimicrobial agents? Why? | Yes, because it dissolves the membrane. (Loses structure) |
| T/F: Alcohol can destroy bacterial endospores. | False, it destroys resistant vegetative forms. |
| What is alcohol more effective in inactivating, enveloped viruses or non-enveloped viruses? Why? | Enveloped viruses, because they are made up of membrane and alcohol is most effective in compromising membrane. |
| What is a surfactants? | A surface-active agent that forms a water-soluble interface |
| What type of detergent is more effective? Cationic or anionic? | Cationic detergent |
| T/F: Soaps are strong microbicides. | False, they are weak. |
| What helps soap gain germicidal value? | When it's mixed with agents such as chlorhexidine or iodine |
| T/F: We have all undergone chemotherapy. | True |
| What is chemotherapy? | The use of chemical substances or drugs to treat or prevent disease. |
| What is the goal of antimicrobial chemotherapy? | To destroy the infective agent without harming the host's cells |
| What cells are involved with cancer chemotherapy? Is the host harmed? | Human cells vs. Human cells - host is harmed |
| What cells are involved with antimicrobial chemotherapy? Is the host harmed? | Human cells vs. Microbial cells - host is NOT harmed |
| Define Chemotherapeutic drug. | Any chemical used in the treatment, relief, or prophylaxis of a disease |
| Define Prophylaxis. | Use of a drug to PREVENT imminent infection of a person at risk |
| Define Antimicrobial chemotherapy. | The use of drugs to control infection |
| Define Antimicrobials. | All-inclusive term for any antimicrobial drug, regardless of what type of microorganism it targets |
| Define Antibiotics. | Substances produced by the NATURAL metabolic processes of some microorganisms—or created by scientists—that can inhibit or destroy microorganisms; generally, the term is used for drugs targeting bacteria and not other types of microbes |
| Define Semisynthetic drugs. | Drugs that are CHEMICALLY MODIFIED in the laboratory |
| Define Synthetic drugs. | Drugs produced entirely by chemical reactions within a laboratory setting |
| Define Narrow-spectrum (limited spectrum). | Antimicrobials effective against a limited array of microbial types |
| Define Broad-spectrum (extended spectrum). | Antimicrobials effective against a wide variety of microbial types |
| What does selectively ("picky") toxic ("poison") mean? | That is it toxic to the microbe but nontoxic to the host Human cells vs. Microbial cells |
| Do we want our antimicrobials drugs to be Microbicidal or Microbiostatic? Why? | Microbicidal because we want it to kill instead of just slowing down production |
| T/F: Most antimicrobials drugs interfere with the function of enzymes. | True |
| What is the ultimate goal of antimicrobials drugs in bacteria, fungi, or protozoa? | Disrupt the cells processes or structures |
| What is the ultimate goal of antimicrobials drugs in viruses? | Inhibit virus replication |
| What are the 5 targets of Anitmicrobials? | 1. Cell wall 2. Cell membrane 3. DNA/RNA 4. Protein Synthesis Inhibitors acting on Ribosomes 5. Folic Acid Synthesis in the Cytoplasm |
| How do drugs affect bacterial Cell Walls? | React with one or more enzyme that is required for the synthesis of new peptidoglycan |
| Are drugs that affect bacterial Cell Walls a good or great target? Why? | GREAT - peptidoglycan is only found in bacteria (not human cells) so it is a great target because the pathogen is targeted without harming the host AKA us |
| What are the targets of Penicillin in relation to bacterial cell wall? | Bacitracin or Vancomycin |
| How do drugs affect Nucleic Acid Synthesis? | By affecting Mode of Action |
| Are drugs that affect Nucleic Acid Synthesis a good or great target? Why? | GOOD because we also have DNA/RNA |
| What does Rifampin target? | Transcription of DNA |
| What does Rifampin do? | It binds to the RNA polymerase |
| What do gyrase inhibitors target? (CHECK CORRECTNESS) | DNA Replication |
| What are some examples of gyrase (twisted) inhibitors? (CHECK CORRECTNESS) | Nalidixic acid, Fluouroquinolones, or Ciprofloxacin |
| How do drugs affect Protein Synthesis? | Inhibit translation by reacting with the ribosome-mRNA complex |
| What exactly is it that drugs affect in Protein Synthesis? | Ribosomes |
| Are drugs that affect Nucleic Acid Synthesis a good or great target? Why? | GREAT - because theres weight differences between the 2 classes (Prok - 70s , Euk - 80s) the drug is selectively toxic |
| What are the following examples of? Aminoglycosides Chloramphenicol Oxazolidinoes Tetracyclines Erythromycin | Ribosome-mRNA complexes |
| What are Polymyxins used most commonly in? What does it target ? | It is used in Triple Antibiotic Creams that are used topically to targets the cell membrane |
| Are drugs that affect bacterial Cell Membrane a good or great target? Why? | Good target because we also have Cell Membranes |
| What is Folic acid used to make? | DNA, RNA, and amino acids |
| What exactly is it that drugs target in Folic Acid Synthesis? | Enzymes to stop the Folic Acid Synthesis |
| What type of drugs play as competitive inhibition in Folic Acid Synthesis? | Sulfonamides and Trimethoprim |
| Are drugs that affect bacterial Folic Acid Synthesis a good or great target? Why? | Good target because we also have synthesize folic acid |
| PABA ---E1---> B ---E2---> C ---E3---> Folic Acid | Folic Acid Synthesis |
| Are the following examples of broad or narrow spectrum drugs? Tetracyclines Carbapenems Penicillins Sulfonamides Cephalosporins Streptomycin | Broad spectrum drugs |
| Are the following examples of broad or narrow spectrum drugs? Isoiazid Tobramycin Polymyxin | Narrow spectrum drugs |
| When treating fungal infections how does this affect the host? | It is toxic to us because like fungal cells, we are also eukaryotic |
| What are the four main groups that treat fungal infections? | Macrolide polyene antibiotics Griseofulvin Synthetic azoles Flucystosine |
| What does the anti-fungal drugs Macrolide polyene antibiotics do? | Binds to fungal membrane-ergosterol to cause loss of selective permeability |
| What does the anti-fungal drugs Griseofulvin do? | Prevents cell division a |
| What is Griseofulvin effective against? | Ringworm |
| What does the anti-fungal drugs azoles do? | Inhibit ergosterol synthesis |
| What are synthetic azoles for? | Broad spectrum |
| What does the prefix Myco mean? | Fungal |
| What are the synthetic azoles drug, Flucystosine, used for? | Selected patients for AIDS-related mycoses |
| What are the synthetic azoles drug, Ketoconazole, used for? | Cutaneous mycoses, vaginal and oral candidiasis, and some systemic mycoses |
| How are Ketoconazoles used? | Orally and topically |
| What are the synthetic azoles drug, Clotrimazole & miconazole, used for? | Skin, mouth, and vagina |
| How are Clotrimazoles & miconazoles used? | Topically |
| Are anti-fungal drugs a good or great target? Why? | Good target because like fungal cells, we are also eukaryotic |
| What is antihelminthic drug therapy used for? | Flukes, tapeworms, and roundworms |
| How does antihelminthic drug therapy work? | Block reproduction |
| T/F: Antihelminthic drug therapy is usually successful in eradicating adult worms. | False, they're unsuccessful. |
| What are mebendazoles and thiabendazoles examples of? | Antihelminthic drug therapy |
| Are mebendazoles and thiabendazoles broad or narrowed spectrum? | Broad spectrum |
| Is antihelminthic drug therapy a good or great target? Why? | Good target because like helminth cells, we are also eukaryotic |
| What is an interferon (IFN)? | It is a neighborhood watch |
| What do interferons do? | Let's "neighborhood" known that theres a nearby virus |
| What is an adaptive response in which microorganisms begin to tolerate an amount of drug that would ordinarily be inhibitory called? | Drug Resistance |
| What is intrinsic drug resistance? | Drug resistance that has always had microbial tolerant to a drug |
| What is acquired drug resistance? | Drug resistance that received microbial tolerant from a neighboring population |
| What are MRSA, TB, gonerrhea, and clamydia common examples of what? | Examples of drug resistant drugs |
| What is the following description addressing? - Limit drug use - Don't misuse drug - Take full dosages prescribed - Avoid broad narrow antibiotics | How to prevent drug resistance |
| T/F: We are infected on a daily basis because we are always colonized (exposed to microbes). | False, we are colonized on a daily basis but NOT infected |
| What is the following explaining: 1. Host 2. Pathogen - Cross host defenses - Multiply | Infection |
| What is a disease? | An infection caused by a pathological state |
| What is an infectious disease? | An infection caused by microbes |
| What are microbes on the human body that outnumber human cells at least ten to one. | Resident Biota |
| What is resident biota also known as? | Normal flora |
| What does the human body provide normal flora with? (Hint: 4 things) | - Constant nourishment and moisture - Stable pH - Stable temperature - A surface to settle on |
| What are resident microbes? | Particular to a specific site |
| What are transient microbes? | Passerby's - do not normally reside |
| What are opportunist microbes? | Cause disease when given the opportunity |
| What two body systems are the only ones without normal flora? | Nervous and Cardiovascular |
| What are the 3 ways in which normal flora can be acquired? | - Birth canal - Food - Breathing |
| What is the natural succession of acquiring normal flora via birth canal? | Lactobacilli |
| What is the natural succession of acquiring normal flora via food? | Coliforms |
| What is the natural succession of acquiring normal flora via breathing? | Anaerobes |
| What are the benefits of normal flora? (Hint: There's 3) | - Excludes potential pathogens - Improves host nutrition - Stimulates immune |
| What is a microbe whose relationship with its host is parasitic and results in infection and disease? | A pathogen |
| T/F: The type and severity of infection depends on the conditions of the host. | True - things such as age, low immunity, stress, surgery, organ transplant and other factors all play into the type and severity of infection. |
| What is an organism's potential to cause infection or disease? | Pathogenicity |
| What are true pathogens? | Pathogens that ALWAYS cause disease |
| What are pathogens called that are harmless, but can cause disease if given the opportunity? | Opportunistic pathogens |
| What is an example of an opportunistic pathogen? | Yeast |
| What is the degree of pathogenicity called? | Virulence |
| Define virulence. | How well equipped a pathogen is to cause disease |
| What is a virulence factor? | Any characteristic or structure of the microbe that contributes to its virulence |
| Name the 5 steps for establishing infection/disease? | 1. Portal of Entry 2. Attach to host 3. Survive host defenses 4. Cause disease 5. Exit |
| T/F: Each microbe must enter the body by only their specified portal of entry. | True, they must find the right one. |
| What is the portal of entry for the greatest number of pathogens? | Respiratory Tract |
| What is the portal of entry that is very tough to penetrate when intact? | Skin |
| What is the portal of entry are for the pathogens that are ingested via food or drinks? | Gastrointestinal Tract |
| What is the portal of entry are for the pathogens that enter via penis, external genitalia, vagina, cervix, or urethra? | Urogenital |
| T/F: Microbes can't cross the placenta. | False, some microbes can cross the placenta. |
| What does perinatally mean? | Through birth canal |
| What does T.O.R.C.H stand for? | Toxoplasmosis Other disease Rubella Cytomegalovirus Herpes simplex |
| What is Toxoplasmosis? | Protozoan flu-like disease |
| What are some other diseases that can occur perinatally? | Syphilis, AIDS, chlamydia, chicken pox, coxsackie virus |
| What is VZ virus? | Chicken pox |
| What is Rubella? | German measles |
| What is Cytomegalovirus? | Like herpes |
| What is I.D? | The min number of a pathogen required for infection to proceed |
| How does a high virulence affect the infectious dose? | Smaller IDs have greater virulence - & vice versa |
| What are some of the virulence factors that aid infection in attaching to the host? (Name 5) | Frimbiae Slime layer Viral spikes Capsid proteins Capsules |
| What are viral spikes? | Viral attachment proteins |
| What are WBCs that engulf and destroy pathogens? | Phagocytes |
| T/F: Virulence factors aid in tissue damage. | True, they do. |
| What are 2 examples of direct damage? | - Exoenzymes - Toxins |
| What is an examples of indirect damage? | When a pathogen causes excessive or inappropriate host response |
| What do extracellular enzymes do? | Break down and inflict damage on tissues or dissolve the host's defense barriers |
| What are 4 examples of extracellular enzymes? | - Mucinase - Keratinase - Collagenase - Coagulase |
| What does Mucinase do? | Digests protective coating on mucous membrane |
| What does Keratinase do? | Digests principal components of skin and hair |
| What does Collagenase do? | Digests principal fiber of connective tissue |
| What does Coagulase do? | Causes clotting of the blood or plasma |
| What are specific chemicals that are poisonous to other organisms? | Bacterial toxins |
| What is toxigenicity? | Power to produce toxins |
| What is toxinoses? | Variety of diseases caused by toxins |
| What is it called when the toxins in toxinoses spread by the blood from the site of infection? | Toxemia |
| What is it called when toxinoses is caused by ingestion of toxins? | Intoxication |
| What are the ways bacterial toxins act according to their specific target of action? (Hint: There's 4 ways) | - Neurotoxins - Enterotoxins - Hemotoxins - Nephrotoxins |
| What do Neurotoxins act on? | The nervous system |
| What do Enterotoxins act on? | The intestines |
| What do Hemotoxins act on? | RBCs |
| What do Nephrotoxins act on? | The kidneys |
| What are the ways bacterial toxins act according to their origin? (Hint: There's 2 ways) | - Exotoxins - Endotoxins |
| T/F: Exotoxins have a target. | True, they do have a target. |
| What are endotoxins preserved for? | Gram negative (blebs) |
| What do you call it when accumulated damage leads to cell and tissue death? | Necrosis |
| What is a localized pattern of infection? | When a microbe enters the body and remains confined to a specific tissue |
| What is a systemic pattern of infection? | When infection spreads to different organs and systems, usually through bloodstream |
| What is a focal pattern of infection? | When an infectious agent breaks loose from a local infection and is carried into other tissues |
| What is a mixed pattern of infection? | When several agents infect one site |
| What pattern of infection are polymicrobial diseases? | Mixed |
| What is a chronic pattern of infection? | Is progressive but persists over time |
| What is an acute pattern of infection? | Comes on fast, but is short lived |
| T/F: Portal of Exits leave through the same Portal of Entries. | True, they exit through respiratory, salivary, skin, urogenital, and blood the same way they enter. |
| What occurs during the incubation period? | No symptoms are shown _____ |
| What occurs during the prodromal stage? | Symptoms begin to show _____/ |
| What occurs during invasion? | Symptoms spike / _____/ |
| What occurs during convalescence? | Symptoms subside (recovery & chronic carriers) / \ _____/ \ |
| What are signals of a disease? | Signs and symptoms |
| What is a sign? | Any objective evidence (measurable) |
| T/F: Symptoms are measurable. | False, signs are measurable. |
| What is a symptom? | Any subjective evidence (feelings) |
| When a disease can be identified or defined by a certain complex of signs and symptoms what is it called? | Syndrome |
| What is an examaple of a syndrome? | AIDS |
| What are asymptomatic infections? | When a host is infected but manifests no noticeable symptoms |
| What is the activation of the body defense process? | Inflammation |
| What is the accumulation of fluid in the afflicted tissue? | Edema |
| What are walled-off collections of inflammatory cells and microbes in the tissues? | Granulomas or abscesses |
| What is lymphadenitis? | Swollen lymph nodes |
| What is a lesion? | The site of infection or disease |
| What is leukocytosis? | Increased WBCs |
| What is leukopenia? | Decreased WBCs |
| What is it called when microorganisms actively multiplying in the blood? | Septicemia |
| What is it called when microorganisms are present in the blood but not actively multiplying? | Bacteremia or viremia |
| What is latency? | A dormant stage |
| What is Epstein-Barr? | Mono |
| What is sequelae? | Long-term or permanent damage to tissues or organs |
| T/F: Microbes can periodically become active and produce a recurrent disease. | True, they can. |
| What is a reservoir? | The primary habitat in the natural world from which a pathogen originates |
| What is the individual or object from which an infection is actually acquired? | The source |
| There are two types of carriers, what are they? | Non-living and living carriers |
| What type of carrier is gonorrhea? | Asymptomatic carrier |
| What type of carrier is AIDS? | Incubation carrier |
| What type of carrier is diphtheria? | Convalescent carrier |
| What type of carrier is typhoid fever? | Chronic carrier |
| What type of carrier are patient care personnel? | Passive carrier |
| What is a live animal that transmits an infectious agent from one host to another? | A vector |
| What are the majority of vectors? | Arthropods |
| What is a biological vector? | An active aiding in a pathogen's life cycle |
| What is an example of a biological vector? | Mosquito |
| What is a mechanical vector? | Transportation of an infectious agent |
| What is an example of a mechanical vector? | House flies |
| What is it when an infection is indigenous to animals but can be transmissible to humans? | Zoonosis |
| What is an example of zoonosis? | Rabies |
| What is noncommunicable disease? | When a disease does not arise through transmission of the infectious agent |
| How do noncommunicable diseases occur? | When normal flora does not do what it needs to do |
| How are noncommunicable diseases acquired? | Through some other, special circumstances |
| What is an example of a noncommunicable disease? | Brain-eating anemia (water = nonliving reservoir) |
| What is communicable disease? | When an infected host transmits the infectious agent to another host |
| How do communicable diseases occur? | Person to person |
| What are some examples of communicable diseases? | Flu, cold, or STI |
| T/F: A contagious agent is highly communicable. | True, it is highly communicable. |
| What are 4 direct forms of transmission in communicable diseases? | - Contact - Droplets - Vertical (perent to offspring) - Biological vector |
| What are 3 indirect forms of transmission in communicable diseases? | - Fomites (ex. door knob) - Food, water, bio products |
| What are indirect forms of transmission in communicable diseases also known as? | Vehicles |
| What are hospital acquired infections called? | Nosocomial Infections |
| What is the goal of nosocomial infections? | Avoid contamination |
| How are nosocomial infections controlled in hospital settings? | Aseptic techniques |
| How many cases of nosocomial infections are there a year? | 2-4 million |
| What is the most common type of nosocomial infection? | Via urinary tract |
| What is the study of the frequency and distribution of disease and other health-related factors in defined human populations? | Epidemiology |
| What is studied in epidemiology (8 subjects)? | - Anatomy - Physiology - Immunology - Medicine - Psychology - Sociology - Ecology - Statistics |
| What is an epidemic? | A sudden acute disease outbreak that affects many people |
| What is a pandemic? | A worldwide epidemic |
| What is an endemic? | Chronic occurrence in a geographical region |
| What is a sporadic? | Random small outbreaks |
| Host Defenses break up into 2 branches: | - Innate, nonspecific - Acquired, specific |
| What does innate mean? | Born with |
| Under the innate, nonspecific branch fall the first 2 lines of defense, what are they? | 1st Line: Barriers 2nd Line: Nonspecific mechanisms |
| What falls under the 1st Line of Defense: | Barriers - Chemical, physical, genetic |
| What falls under the 2nd Line of Defense: | Nonspecific mechanisms - Inflammation, Phagocytosis, Fever, & Antimicrobial proteins |
| What two types of antimicrobial proteins fall under the 2nd line of defense: | Interferon & Complement |
| Under the acquired, specific branch falls the third line of defense: | B cells - Produce antibodies T cells - Cell mediated immunity |
| Why is the 1st line of defense nonspecific? | Because it doesn't need to know what the microorganism is, only that it's foreign & it doesn't belong to us |
| Describe 2 characteristics of the innate, nonspecific branch? | - Always on guard - Doesn't improve with repeated exposure |
| What are the type of physical barriers in the 1st line of defense? | Thick skin, cilia, and mucus |
| What are the type of chemical barriers in the 1st line of defense? (Name about 5 example) | Lysozyme in tears/saliva, HCl in stomach, acidic pH of vagina, lactic acid and electrolytes in sweat, and digestive juices in bile |
| Why is the 3rd line of defense acquired? | Exposure |
| Which line of defense are your "big guns" | 3rd line of defense |
| What is the study of all features of the body's second and third lines of defense? | Immunology |
| What is a healthy functioning immune system responsible for? | - Body's surveillance (always active) - Recognition of foreign material - Destruction of foreign material |
| What do markers do? | Mark self as self - or - non-self as non-self |
| Markers are carried out by what? | WBCs |
| What are markers usually made up of? | Proteins or sugar |
| What 4 systems are involved in the immune defenses? | - Reticuloendothelial system (RES) - Extracellular fluid (ECF) - Lymphatic system - Bloodstream |
| What is the Reticuloendothelial system also known as? | Integumentary system |
| What system does the thymus, lymph nodes, and spleen fall into? | The integumentary system |
| What is the integumentary system heavily endowed with? | Macrophages |
| What are macrophages? | WBC that carries out non-specific phagocytosis |
| What does the lymphatic system do? | Transports lymph through a system of vessels and lymph nodes? |
| What is the lymphatic system's primary function? | Filter anything foreign (non-self) |
| What is lymph? | Plasma-like liquid without the RBCs |
| Lymphatic vessels are located along what? | Along lines of blood vessels |
| Lymph flows in only one direction: | From extremities toward the heart |
| How if lymph moved along? | Through the contraction of skeletal muscles |
| What site in the body are "dumps"? What shape are these organs? | Lymph nodes, bean-shaped |
| What does the spleen do? | Filters pathogens from the blood |
| What does the thymus do? | Matures T-cells |
| What is GALT? | Gut Associated Lymphoid Tissue |
| What is MALT? | Mucosa Associated Lymphoid Tissue |
| What is BALT? | Bronchial Associated Lymphoid Tissue |
| What system do tonsil and Peyer's patches belong to? | Lymphatic system |
| What is serum? | Plasma without clotting factors |
| What is plasma mostly made up of? | Water |
| Define hematopoiesis. | Production of blood cells |
| Where do ALL blood cells come from? | Pluripotential stem cell |
| Where are pluripotential stem cells found in? | Bone marrow |
| What is the process in which immature or unspecialized cells develop the specialized form and function of mature cells? | Differentiation |
| What are thrombocytes? | Platelets |
| What determines differentiation? | Chemical signals |
| T/F: Cells come from cells. | True |
| What are large cytoplasmic granules that have a lobed nucleus called? | Granulocytes |
| What are neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils? Granulocytes or Agranulocytes? | They're granulocytes |
| What are very small granules that have a rounded nucleus called? | Agranulocytes |
| What are lymphocytes (B- & T-cells) and monocytes? Granulocytes or Agranulocytes? | They're agranulocytes |
| What is the primary function of neutrophils? | Phagocytize (AKA kill) bacteria |
| In what type of response are basophils important in? | Allergic |
| What is the primary function of eosinophils? | Attach and destroy eukaryotic pathogens (ex. fungal and worms) |
| T/F: Granules are digestive enzymes. | True, they are. |
| In which line of defense do lymphocytes play a role? | 3rd Line of Defense |
| Name the functions of monocytes. (Hint: There's about 4) | Phagocytic functions, process and present foreign material to lymphocytes, secrete compounds to aid immune reaction |
| What is the primary function of erythrocytes? | Transport oxygen and CO2 to and from tissues |
| What is the 2 primary functions of Platelets? | - Hemostasis - Releasing chemicals for blood clotting and inflammation |
| Phagocytosis step 1: | Phagocyte is attracted to bacteria |
| Phagocytosis step 2: | Bacteria attached to Phagocyte thru their PAMPs |
| What are PAMPs? | Pathogen Associated Molecular Patterns AKA Pathogen markers |
| Phagocytosis step 3: | Vacuoles are formed around bacteria during engulfment |
| Phagocytosis step 4: | A digestive vacuole, phagosome, is formed |
| Phagocytosis step 5: | Lysosomes fue with phagosomes, forming a phagolysosome |
| Phagocytosis step 6: | Killing and destruction of bacterial cells |
| Phagocytosis step 7: | Release of residual debris |
| What are the 5 classic signs and symptoms of inflammation? | - Rubor - Calor - Tumor - Dolor - Loss of function |
| What is Rubor? | Redness |
| What is Calor? | Warmth |
| What is Tumor? | Swelling |
| What is Dolor? | Pain |
| What is the chief function of inflammation? | Destroy microbes and prevents their spread |
| What are exudates? | Fluid that escape through gaps in the walls of post-capillary venules |
| T/F: The accumulation of exudates prevents edema. | False, is causes edema, not prevents it. |
| How do WBCs leave the blood vessels and go into tissue spaces? | Diapedesis |
| What is chemotaxis? | The tendency of WBCs to migrate in response to a specific chemical stimulus |
| What are the2 benefits of fluid in tissues in the inflammatory response? | - Dilutes toxin - Traps microbes and prevents spread |
| What is responsible for controlling fever in the body? | Hypothalamus |
| What do pyrogens do? | Set the hypothalamic "thermostat" to a higher setting |
| Which anti-microbial protein is a warning system? | Interferon |
| What is the final product of the anti-microbial protein complement? | MACs |
| Whats are MACs? | "Donuts" - Membrane attack complex |
| What do MACs do? | Kills the cell by making holes in the cell membrane |
| What is Specific Immunity? | Your Third and final Line of defense |
| What is acquired only after an immunizing event? (ex. Infection or Vaccination) | Specific Immunity |
| Define Immunocompetence. | The body's ability to react to foreign substances |
| What develops B and T lymphocytes? | Immunocompetence |
| Name two characterizing features of the third line of defense. | specificity and memory |
| What does Specificity and Memory do in the third line of defense? | Only recognize certain (specific) pathogens |
| Define Antigen. | Anything foreign that activate B-cells and T-cells |
| What can an antigen also be known as? | Immunogen |
| Define Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC). | Series of glycoproteins (MHC molecules) found on the surface of all cells EXCEPT red blood cells |
| What does Red Blood Cells not have MCH? | Red blood cells have its own special markers |
| If MCH is ABSENT, what will happen to the cell? | The cell will be destroyed by the immune system |
| What are the 2 main functions of MHC | - Mark Self verses Self - Present Antigens |
| T/F: MHC are proteins. | True, they are. |
| Do B-cells and T-cells need to work together? | Yes. |
| What is a high level of communication between B-cells and T-cells important? | Because when antigens are presented, both B-cells and T-cells need to be activated |
| What are the steps of the Development of Dual Lymphocyte System? | Step 1: Lymphocyte Development Step 2: Presentation of Antigens Step 3: T-cell Response --> Antibodies Step 4: T-cell Response --> Cell-mediated immunity |
| What occurs in Step 1: Lymphocyte Development? | All lymphocytes arise from the same basic stem cell type |
| Where do Lymphocytes come from? | come from Pluripotential stem cells |
| What is Pluripotential? | Stem cells having the developmental plasticity to give rise to more than one type. Example: undifferentiated blood cells in the bone marrow. |
| What does Final Maturation of B-cells occur? | In specialized Bone Marrow sites |
| Where does Final Maturation of T-cells occur? | In the Thymus |
| After maturation of B-cells and T-cells where to they migrate to? | Separate areas in the lymphoid organs "going to the dump to shop" |
| What 4 Specific Events occur in B-cell Maturation? | - Bone marrow sites have stromal cells - Stromal cells nurture lymphocytes & initiate B-cell development - Circulate thru blood, "homing" to specific sites in lymph nodes, spleen, & GALT - Adhere to specific binding & come into contact with antigens |
| Describe the characteristics of a B-Cell Receptor. | - Immunoglobulin receptors (Igs) - Y-shaped arrangement - Can be highly variable in shape to fit a wide range of antigens Variable regions (V) - Fork - changes Constant regions (C)-Handle - remains the same |
| What 3 Specific Events occur in T-Cell Maturation? | - Directed by the thymus gland and its hormones -Circulate between the lymphatic and circulatory system, migrating to specific T-cell areas of the lymph nodes and spleen - Mature T lymphocytes express T-cell receptor and co-receptors (CD-4 or CD-8) |
| Describe the characteristics of a T-Cell Receptor | - Constant Region - Variable Region - Antigen binding site - Co-Receptor - Never Secreted; always attached |
| What is Immunological Diversity? In how many ways can these be arranged? | 500 gene segments that can be rearranged to produce diverse receptor types - Infinite ways to arrange |
| Immunological Diversity *Different B and T cells are made which leads to specificity *By the time B and T cells reach the lymphoid tissue they are equipped to respond to a single, unique antigen *Each line of lymphocytes is termed a clone | |
| What are the 5 Antigenic Molecules? | - Proteins and polypeptides - Lipoproteins - Nucleoproteins - Polysaccharides - Haptens |
| What are Proteins and polypeptides as antigens? | Enzymes, cell surface structure, hormones, exotoxins |
| What are Lipoproteins as an antigen? | Cell membrane |
| What are Nucleoproteins as an antigen? | DNA complexes to proteins but not pure DNA |
| What are Polysacchararides as an antigen? | Certain bacterial capsules |
| What are Haptens as an antigen? | Small foreign molecules that are too small to elicit an immune response on their own (Extra information: if linked yo a larger carrier molecule, them the combination develops IMMUNOGENICITY) |
| Role of antigen processing and presentation | *Produce APCs *Engulf the antigen and modify it so it is more immunogenic and recognizable - Epitope *After processing, the antigen is bound to the MHC receptor and moved to the surface of the APC so it is acces |
| What are APC? | Antigen-presenting cells: cells that act upon and formally present antigens to lymphocytes *Macrophages *Dendritic cells (related to macrophages) *B cells |
| What occurs in Step 3 & 4: B-Cell Response? | Activation of B Lymhocytes *Clonal section and binding of antigen *Antigen processing and presentation *B-cell/ T-cell recognition and copperation (T- Helper) *B-cell activation *Clonal expansion (copies) *Antibody production and secretion *Plasma cells |
| What are Memory Cells? | Long term B-cells |
| What are Plasma Cells? | Antibody producer factors that is fighting right now |
| Name and describe main function of the Classes of Immunoglobulins (Igs). | B cell receptors (weight and arrangement) IgM- 1st one made during an infection IgA- important in mucosal defense IgD- acts as a receptor IgG- most prevalent AB IgE- Allergies |
| Antigen- Antibody Interactions : Opsonization | Plasma cells - antibodies marking it for "death" Result: death |
| Antigen- Antibody Interactions: Neutralization | not allowing microorganisms to attach Result: death |
| Antigen- Antibody Interactions: Agglutination | Accumulate; stick together which prevents it from doing what its suppose to do Result: death |
| Antigen- Antibody Interactions: Complement fixation | Antibodies call in complement which produces MACs (donuts) Result: death |
| Antigen- Antibody Interactions: Antitoxin | Antibodies bind to toxin & don't allow it to find its target Results: death |
| Monitoring Ab Production: Primary Response | *First exposure *Latent period- lack of antibodies synthesis *Synthesis of antibodies -first IgM, second IgG, then some IgM ad IgA *Titers (In immunochemistry, a measure of antibody level in a patient, determined |
| Monitoring Ab Production: Secondary Response | *Re-expossre to the same immunogens *Antibody synthesis, titer, and length of antibody persistence is rapid and amplified *primary due to memory cells |
| What occurs in Step 3 & 4: T- Cell Response | Cell-Mediated Immunity (CMI) *require the direct involvement of T lymphocytes throughout the course of the reaction *T cells require some type of MHC recognition before they can be activated *T cells stimulate other T cells, B cells, and phagocytes |
| Cell-Mediated Immunity (CMI) *require the direct involvement of T lymphocytes throughout the course of the reaction *T cells require some type of MHC recognition before they can be activated *T cells stimulate other T cells, B cells, and phagocytes *Cytok | *require the direct involvement of T lymphocytes throughout the course of the reaction *T cells require some type of MHC recognition before they can be activated *T cells stimulate other T cells, B cells, and phagocytes *Cytok |
| What is Cytokine production? | Production of chemicals produced by T- cells that tell other cells what to do |
| T cell Activation and Differentiation | *Recognize an antigen only with an MHC carrier *T cell is sensitized when an antigen/ MHC complex is bound to its receptors *The activated T cells then transform in preparation for mitotic divisions and differentiate |
| T Helper Cells (T H) | *Play a central role in regulating immune reactions to antigens *Involved in activating Macrophages -directly by receptor contact -indirect y by releasing cytokines |
| T Helper Cells (T H) | *Secrete interleukin-2 (type of cytokine) *some secrete interleukin- 4,5, and 6 (help activate B-cells) |
| T Helper Cells (Th): secrete interleukin- 4,5, and 6 stimulate various activities of B-cells | secrete interleukin- 4,5, and 6 stimulate various activities of B-cells |
| Regulatory T Cells (Tr) | *T-cells regualte *Maintain "Happy Medium" *Carry CD4 markers *Control Inflammation *Prevent Autoimmunity *Prevent immune response against normal flora |
| Cytotoxic T Cells (Tc) | *Cytotoxicity *Target cells that Tc cells can destroy include: Virally infected cells, cancer cells, and cells from other animals and humans *After activation the Tc cell severely injures the target cell- secrerion of perforins and |
| What is Cytotoxicity? | The capacity to kill a specific target cell |
| What are Perforins? | Proteins released by cytotoxic T cells that poke holes in target cells |
| What is Granzymes? | Digestive Enzymes secreted by cytotoxic T cells that eat up the target cell |
| Natural Killer Cells (NKC) | *Related to T- cells *Lack specificity for antigens *Circulate through the spleen, blood, and lungs *Probably the first killer cells to attack cancer cells and virus-infected cells |
| Vaccines | Whole bacterial cell or virus -Killer cells or inactive viruses- dead -Live, attenuated cells or viruses- softened Antigenic molecules derived from bacterial cells or viruses |
| Whole bacterial cells or virus: Dead | dead organisms are safest less effective immunogens wrong POE (portal of entry) |
| Whole bacterial cells or virus: Live | live organisms offer better response mimic actual infection mutate back to virulent form |
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