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Latin America Review
Ap World History - Summerville High School
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Civilization | societies with reliance on sedentary agriculture, ability to produce food surpluses, and existence of nonfarming elites, along with merchant and manufacturing groups. |
| Olmecs | people of a cultural tradition that arose at San Lorenzo and La Venta in Mexico c. 1200 B.C.E.; featured irrigated agriculture, urbanism, elaborate religion, beginnings of calendrical and writing systems. |
| Chavín de Huanter | culture appeared in the highlands of the Andes between 1800 and 1200 B.C.E.; typified by ceremonial centers with large stone buildings; greatest ceremonial center was characterized by artistic motifs. |
| Teotihuacan | site of classic culture in central Mexico; urban center with important religious functions; supported by intensive agriculture in surrounding regions; population of as many as 200,000. |
| Maya | classic culture emerging in southern Mexico and Central America contemporary with Teotihuacan; extended over broad region; featured monumental architecture, written language, calendrical and mathematical systems, highly developed religion. |
| Inca | group of clans centered at Cuzco that were able to create an empire incorporating various Andean cultures; term also used for leader of empire. |
| world economy | created by Europeans during the late 16th century; based on control of the seas; established an international exchange of foods, diseases, and manufactured products. |
| Christopher Columbus | Italian navigator in the service of Aragon and Castile; sailed west to find a route to India and instead came upon the Americas in 1492. |
| East India Companies | British and Dutch trading companies that obtained government monopolies of trade to India and Asia; acted independently in their regions. |
| core nations | nations, usually European, that profited from the world economy; controlled international banking and commercial services; exported manufactured goods and imported raw materials. |
| mercantilism | the colonial economic policy, by which a colonizing nation must import only from its own colonies, but sell exports as widely as possible. |
| mestizos | people of mixed European and Native American heritage. |
| Vasco de Balboa | (1475–1517), Spanish adventurer; explored Central America. |
| Francisco Pizarro (1478–1541) | Spanish explorer; arrived in the Americas in 1502; joined Balboa in Panama, then successfully attacked the Inca Empire. |
| New France | French colonies in Canada and elsewhere; extended along St. Lawrence River and Great Lakes and down Mississippi River valley system. |
| Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile | monarchs of Christian kingdoms; their marriage created the kingdom of Spain; initiated exploration of the New World. |
| Hispaniola | first island in Caribbean settled by Spaniards; first settled by Columbus on his second voyage |
| encomienda | grant of Indian laborers made to Spanish conquerors and settlers in Latin America; basis for earliest forms of coerced labor in Spanish colonies. |
| encomendero | the holder of a grant of Indians who were required to pay tribute or provide labor; responsible for their integration into the church. |
| Bartolomé de las Casas | Dominican friar who supported peaceful conversion of Native American population, opposed forced labor, and advocated Indian rights. |
| Hernán Cortés | led expedition to Mexico in 1519; defeated Aztec empire and established Spanish colonial rule. |
| Moctezuma II | last independent Aztec ruler; killed during Cortés’s conquest. |
| Mexico City | capital of New Spain; built on ruins of Tenochtitlan |
| New Spain | :Spanish colonial possessions in Mesoamerica in territories once part of Aztec imperial system. |
| Francisco Vácquez de Coronado | led Spanish expedition into the southwestern United States in search of gold. |
| Pedro de Valdivia | Spanish conqueror of Araucanian Indians of Chile; established city of Santiago in 1541. |
| mita | forced labor system replacing Indian slaves and encomienda workers; used to mobilize labor for mines and other projects. |
| Potosí | largest New World silver mine; located in Bolivia. |
| Huancavelica | greatest mercury deposit in South America; used in American silver production. |
| haciendas | rural agricultural and herding estates; produced goods for consumers in America; basis for wealth and power of the local aristocracy. |
| consulado | merchant guild of Seville with a virtual monopoly over goods shipped to Spanish America; handled much of the silver shipped in return. |
| galleons | large, heavily armed ships used to carry silver from New World colonies to Spain; basis of convoy system used for transportation of bullion. |
| Treaty of Tordesillas | concluded in 1494 between Castile and Portugal; clarified spheres of influence and rights of possession; in the New World, Brazil went to Portugal and the rest to Spain. |
| letrados | university-trained lawyers from Spain; basic personnel of the Spanish colonial bureaucratic system. |
| Recopilación | body of laws collected in 1681 for Spanish New World possessions; bases of law in the Indies. |
| Council of the Indies | Spanish government body that issued all laws and advised king on all issues dealing with the New World colonies. |
| viceroyalties | major divisions of Spanish New World colonies headed by direct representatives of the king; one based in Lima, the other in Mexico City. |
| viceroys | senior government officials in Spanish America; ruled as direct representatives of the king over the principal administrative units or viceroyalties |
| audiencia | royal courts of appeals established in Spanish New World colonies; staffed by professional magistrates who made and applied laws. |
| Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz | 17th-century author, poet, and musician of New Spain; gave up secular concerns to concentrate on spiritual matters. |
| Pedro Alvares Cabral | Portuguese leader of an expedition to India; landed in Brazil in 1500. |
| captaincies | areas along the Brazilian coast granted to Portuguese nobles for colonial development. |
| Paulistas | backwoodsmen from São Paulo, Brazil; penetrated Brazilian interior in search of precious metals during the 17th century |
| Minas Gerais | Brazilian region where gold was discovered in 1695; a gold rush followed. |
| Rio de Janeiro | Brazilian port used for mines of Minas Gerais; became capital in 1763. |
| sociedad de castas | Spanish American social system based on racial origins; Europeans on top, mixed races in the middle, Indians and African slaves at the bottom. |
| peninsulares: | Spanish-born residents of the New World. |
| Creoles | people of European ancestry born in Spanish New World colonies; dominated local economies; ranked socially below peninsulares. |
| amigos del país | clubs and associations dedicated to reform in Spanish colonies; flourished during the 18th century; called for material improvement rather than political reform. |
| War of the Spanish Succession | (1702–1713); wide-ranging war fought between European nations; resulted in the installation of Philip of Anjou as king of Spain. |
| Charles III | Spanish monarch (1759–1788); instituted fiscal, administrative, and military reforms in Spain and its empire. |
| José de Galvez | Spanish Minister of the Indies and chief architect of colonial reform; moved to eliminate creoles from the upper colonial bureaucracy; created intendants for local government. |
| Marquis of Pombal | Prime Minister of Portugal (1755–1776); strengthened royal authority in Brazil, expelled the Jesuits, enacted fiscal reforms, and established monopoly companies to stimulate the colonial economy. |
| Comunero Revolt | a popular revolt against Spanish rule in New Granada in 1781; suppressed as a result of government concessions and divisions among rebels. |
| Tupac Amaru II | Mestizo leader of Indian revolt in Peru; supported by many in the lower social classes; revolt failed because of Creole fears of real social revolution |
| Toussaint L’Overture | leader of the slave rebellion on the French island of St. Domingue in 1791; led to the creation of the independent republic of Haiti in 1804. |
| Father Miguel de Hidalgo: | Mexican priest who established an independence movement among Indians and mestizos in 1810; after early victories, he was captured and executed. |
| Augustín de Iturbide | conservative Creole officer in the Mexican army who joined the independence movement; made emperor in 1821. |
| Simon Bolívar | Creole military officer in northern South America; won victories in Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador between 1817 and 1822 that led to the independent state of Gran Colombia. |
| Gran Colombia | existed as an independent state until 1830 when Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador became separate independent nations. |
| José de San Martín | : leader of movements in Rio de la Plata that led to the independence of the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata by 1816; later led independence movements in Chile and Peru. |
| João VI | Portuguese monarch who fled the French to establish his court in Brazil from 1808 to 1820; Rio de Janeiro became the real capital of the Portuguese Empire. |
| Pedro I | son and successor of João VI in Brazil; aided in the declaration of Brazilian independence in 1822 and became constitutional emperor. |
| Andrés Santa Cruz | mestizo general, would-be leader of a united Peru and Bolivia; the union never took place. |
| caudillos | leaders in independent Latin America who dominated local areas by force in defiance of national policies; sometimes seized the national government. |
| centralists | Latin American politicians who favored strong, centralized national governments with broad powers; often supported by conservative politicians. |
| federalists | Latin American politicians who favored regional governments rather than centralized administrations; often supported by liberal politicians. |
| General Antonio López de Santa Anna | Mexican general who seized power after the collapse of the Mexican republic in 1835. |
| Juan Manuel de Rosas | federalist leader in Buenos Aires; took power in 1831; commanded loyalty of gauchos; restored local autonomy. |
| Monroe Doctrine: | United States declaration of 1823 that any attempt by a European country to colonize the Americas would be considered an unfriendly act. |
| guano | bird droppings utilized as fertilizer; a major Peruvian export between 1850 and 1880. |
| positivism | a philosophy based on the ideas of Auguste Comte; stressed observation and scientific approaches to the problems of society. |
| Auguste Comte | French philosopher (19th century); founder of positivism, a philosophy that stressed observation and scientific approaches to the problems of society. |
| manifest destiny | belief in the United States that it was destined to rule from the Atlantic to the Pacific. |
| Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo (1848) | ratified by the United States; Mexico lost one-half of its national territory. |
| Mexican-American War | (1846–1848); American expansion leads to dispute over California and Texas. |
| Benito Juárez | Indian lawyer and politician who led a liberal revolution against Santa Anna; defeated by the French who made Maximilian emperor; returned to power from 1867 to 1872. |
| La Reforma | name of Juárez’s liberal revolution. |
| Maximilian von Habsburg | Austrian archduke proclaimed Emperor of Mexico as a result of French intervention in 1862; after the French withdrawal, he was executed in 1867. |
| Argentine Republic | replaced state of Buenos Aires in 1862 as a result of a compromise between centralists and federalists. |
| Domingo F. Sarmiento | liberal politician and president of the Argentine Republic; author of Facundo, a critique of caudillo politics; increased international trade and launched reforms in education and transportation |
| fazendas | coffee estates that spread into the Brazilian interior between 1840 and 1860; caused intensification of slavery. |
| cientificos | advisors to Díaz’s government who were influenced strongly by positivist ideas. |
| Spanish-American War | fought between Spain and the United States beginning in 1898; resulted in annexation of Puerto Rico and the Philippines; permitted American intervention in the Caribbean |
| Panama Canal | the United States supported an independence movement in Panama, then part of Colombia, in return for the exclusive rights for a canal across the Panama isthmus. |
| Mexican Revolution, 1910–1920 | civil war; challenged Porfirio Díaz in 1910 and initiated a revolution after losing fraudulent elections. |
| Porfirio Diaz | one of Juarez’s generals; elected president of Mexico in 1876; dominated Mexican politics for 35 years; imposed strong central government. |
| Francisco Madero | moderate democratic Mexican reformer; assassinated in 1913 |
| Pancho Villa | Mexican revolutionary leader in northern Mexico after 1910. |
| Emiliano Zapata | Mexican revolutionary commander of a guerrilla movement centered at Morelos; demanded sweeping land reform. |
| Victoriano Herta | came to power in Mexico, 1913; forced from power 1914; tried to install Díaz-style government. |
| Alvaro Obregón | Mexican general; emerged as leader of government in 1915; later elected president. |
| Mexican Constitution of 1917 | : promised land and educational reform, limited foreign ownership, guaranteed rights for workers, and restricted clerical education and property ownership; never fully implemented. |
| Diego Rivera and José Clemente Orozco | Mexican artists working after the Mexican Revolution; famous for wall murals on public buildings that mixed images of the Indian past with Christian and communist themes. |
| Cristeros | conservative peasant movement in Mexico during the 1920s; a reaction against secularism. |
| Party of Institutionalized Revolution (PRI): | inclusive Mexican political party developing from the 1920s; ruled for the rest of the 20th century. |
| Zapatistas | Mexican guerilla movement; named after revolutionary Emiliano Zapata. |
| Juan José Arevalo | reformist president of Guatemala elected in 1944; his programs led to conflict with foreign interests. |
| United Fruit Company | most important foreign company in Guatemala; 1993 nationalization effort of some of its land holdings caused a U.S. reaction. |
| Fulgencio Batista | authoritarian ruler of Cuba (1934–1944). |
| Fidel Castro | revolutionary leader who replaced Batista in 1958; reformed Cuban society with socialist measures; supported economically and politically by the Soviet Union until its collapse. |
| Ernesto “Che” Guevara | Argentinian revolutionary; worked with Fidel Castro in Cuba. |
| liberation theology | combination of Roman Catholic and socialist principles aiming to improve the lives of the poor. |
| Salvador Allende | Chilean socialist president; overthrown by a military coup in 1973. |
| Sandinista party | Nicaraguan party; removed by power in 1990 elections, under U.S. influence. Named for Augusto Sandino. |
| banana republics | conservative, often dictatorial, Latin American governments friendly to the U.S.; exported tropical products. |
| Augusto Sandino | led guerilla resistance movement against U.S. occupation forces in Nicaragua; assassinated by Nicaraguan National Guard in 1934; became national hero and symbol of resistance to U.S. influence in Central America. |
| Good Neighbor Policy | introduced by U.S. president Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1933 to deal fairly, without intervention, with Latin American states. |
| Alliance for Progress | 1961 U.S. program for economic development of Latin America. |
| Indians | misnomer created by Columbus when referring to indigenous New World peoples; still used to describe Native Americans. |
| Toltec culture | succeeded Teotihuacan culture in central Mexico; strong militaristic ethic including human sacrifice; influenced large territory after 1000 C.E.; declined after 1200 C.E. |
| Topiltzin | religious leader and reformer of the Toltecs in 10th century; dedicated to god Quetzalcoatl; after losing struggle for power, went into exile in the Yucatan peninsula. |
| Quetzalcoatl | Toltec deity; feathered serpent; adopted by Aztecs as a major god. |
| Tenochtitlan | founded circa 1325 on a marshy island in Lake Texcoco; became center of Aztec power. |
| Tlaloc | major god of Aztecs; associated with fertility and the agricultural cycle; god of rain. |
| Huitcilopochtli | Aztec tribal patron god; central figure of human sacrifice and warfare; identified with old sun god. |
| Nezhualcoyotl | leading Aztec king of the 15th century. |
| chinampas | beds of aquatic weeds, mud, and earth placed in frames made of cane and rooted in lakes to create “floating islands”; system of irrigated agriculture used by Aztecs. |
| pochteca | merchant class in Aztec society; specialized in long distance trade in luxury items. |
| calpulli | clans in Aztec society; evolved into residential groupings that distributed land and provided labor and warriors. |
| Pachacuti | Inca ruler (1438–1471); began the military campaigns that marked the creation of an Inca empire. |
| ayllus | households in Andean societies that recognized some form of kinship; traced descent from a common, sometimes mythical ancestor. |
| Twantinsuyu | Inca word for their empire; region from Colombia to Chile and eastward into Bolivia and Argentina. |
| split inheritance | Inca practice of ruler descent; all titles and political power went to successor, but wealth and land remained in hands of male descendants for support of dead Inca’s mummy. |
| Temple of the Sun | Inca religious center at Cuzco; center of state religion; held mummies of past Incas. |
| tambos | way stations used by Incas as inns and storehouses; supply centers for Inca armies; relay points for system of runners used to carry messages. |
| mita | labor extracted for lands assigned to the state and the religion; all communities were expected to contribute; an essential aspect of Inca imperial control. |
| Inca socialism | an interpretation describing Inca society as a type of utopia; image of the Inca empire as a carefully organized system in which every community collectively contributed to the whole. |
| yanas | a class of people within Inca society removed from their ayllus to serve permanently as servants, artisans, or workers for the Inca or the Inca nobility. |
| quipu | system of knotted strings utilized by the Incas in place of a writing system; could contain numerical and other types of information for censuses and financial records. |
| Lázaro Cárdenas | Mexican president (1934–1940); responsible for large land redistribution to create communal farms; also began program of primary and rural education. |
| Getúlio Vargas | became president of Brazil following a contested election of 1929; led an authoritarian state; died in 1954. |
| Juan Perón | dominant authoritarian and populist leader in Argentina from the mid-1940s; driven into exile in 1955; returned and elected president in 1973; died in 1974. |
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