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Nissing AP Ch2
A&P Ch2 Chemical Level of Organization (FUNCTIONAL GROUPS)
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What to do if you find an error in these slides | Email Totallyjen@gmail.com, tell me which stack you're working on (A&P ch2) and let me know what I messed up, I'll fix it! |
| What are the 3 states of matter? | Solid, Liquid, Gas |
| This is matter composed of identical atoms | Element |
| Can an element be decomposed by normal chemical reactions? | No |
| How many known elements are there? | 118 |
| How many known types of atoms are there? | 118 |
| How many naturally occuring elements are there? | 92 |
| Which elements are manmade? | 93-118 |
| What is an atomic symbol? | One or two letters that stand for an element |
| When using atomic weight or mass in this bio class, what do we round to? | The nearest WHOLE number |
| What does the atomic number represent | The number of protons in the nucleus (which is generally the number of electrons as well) |
| What is found in the nucleus of an atom? | Protons and neutrons |
| Normally, the number of protons is equal to the number of... | Electrons |
| How do you find the number of neutrons for a specific element from a table of elements? | Atomic weight/mass minus atomic number/protons |
| How do you know how many levels or electron shells an element has? | Whichever horizontal row it's on (ie, 3rd row down = 3 levels) |
| What is different among isotopes of the same element? | The number of neutrons is different, and consequently so is the atomic mass. Protons (and therefore atomic number) and electrons remain the same |
| The superscript number of an isotope refers to what? | The mass of this isotope of the element |
| How do you find the number of protons in an element given the periodic table? | It's the atomic number |
| What does the atomic mass represent? | The mass of the protons and neutrons and electrons (the latter being miniscule overall) |
| The lewis dot model shows the symbol of the element as well as dots representing... | the number of electrons on the last energy level |
| The Bohr Model shows what two numbers in the center? | # of Protons and # of Neutrons |
| Unstable isotopes that give off energy as they decay | Radioactive isotopes |
| Type of atomic bonding where electrons are transferred | Ionic |
| Oxidation is when, in an ionic bond, one or more electrons is transfered _______ a metal | FROM a metal |
| Reduction is when, in an ionic bond, one or more electrons is transferred ______ a non-metal | TO a non metal |
| In oxidation, the charge of the metal is | Positive |
| In the nonmetal that is reduced, the charge is | Negative |
| An ion that has a positive charge is called... | Cation |
| An ion that has a negative charge is called... | Anion |
| In an ionic bond, what is the charge of the metalic ions? | Positive Cation |
| In an ionic bond, what is the charge of the nonmetal? | Negative Anion |
| What are the two tissues in the body with transmembrane potential? | Muscular and nervous (they have the potential energy stored across their membranes for action) |
| Ionic bonds typically are formed between a _____ and a ______. | Metal and nonmetal |
| Sharing of one or more electrons between two or more atoms | Covalent Bonding |
| F-F is the _________ formula indicating that there is a single covalent bond between two Fluoride molecules | Structural |
| F2 is the _________ formula indicating that a molecule is made up of 2 Fluoride molecules | Molecular |
| What are the 4 major elements that create organic molecules? | CHON: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen |
| Any substance that releases hydrogen ions (or, essentially protons), meaning when disassociated in water, a product is H(^+1) | Acid |
| Any substance that releases hydroxyl ions (OH-1), meaning when disassociated a product is OH(^-1) | Base |
| What is the pH? H concentration = 10(^-4) | pH = 4 |
| What is the pH? OH concentration = 10(^-10) | pH = 14-10 = 4 |
| What is the pH? OH concentration = 10(^-12) | pH = 14-12 = 2 |
| What is the function of proteins? | A specific shape performs a specific function, including enzymes (catalyze), transport molecules, cell receptors, hormones, antibodies |
| What elements are in proteins? | Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen and sometimes Sulfur |
| What functional groups will you see on a protein? | A carbon will attach to an amino group (NH2), a carboxylic group (COOH) a hydrogen (H), and a side group (R) |
| What type of bonding occurs between amino acids? | Peptide bonding: Dehydration synthesis between the carboxylic acid on one and the amino group on another |
| What are the monomers and polymers of amino acids? | amino acid, dipeptide, polypeptides, proteins, glycoproteins, lipoproteins... |
| Altering secondary and tertiary structure by the destruction of hydrogen bonds by heat, pH, or salt concentrations | Denaturation |
| What is the function of nucleic acids? | Heredity and protein synthesis |
| What elements are in nucleic acids? | C H O N P |
| What functional groups will you see in a nucleic acid | Phosphate and alcohols (hydroxyl) |
| What are the monomers and polymers of nucleic acid? | Nucleotide, deoxyribonucleic acid, ribonucleic acid |
| What kind of bonding occurs between nucleic acids? | Phosphodiester bond: through dehydration synthesis, the phosphate bonds on both sides with the alcohols |
| How many hydrogen bonds are there between Cytosine and Guanine? | 3 |
| What are the pyrimidines? | Cytosine, Thymine, Uracil |
| What are the purines? | Adenine, Guanine |
| What word describes the structure of DNA strands indicating that one runs from 5' to 3' and the other the opposite way? | antiparallel |
| What makes up the "spine" of a DNA strand? | Sugar and phosphate |
| what unwinds the DNA | helicase |
| What holds DNA strands together | hydrogen bonds of complimentary pairs |
| In replication of DNA, which DNA strand is the "leading strand template"? | The one that runs from 3' to 5' |
| What is the leading strand? | The new strand formed from the leading strand template, and runs from 5' to 3' |
| In replication of DNA, which strand is the "lagging strand template"? | The one that runs from 5' to 3' and makes the okizaki fragments, which become the lagging strand |
| Number of protons in an atom is that element's | atomic number |
| Electrons travel around the nucleus at high speed, within a spherical area called the... | electron cloud |
| In 2-D illustrations of atomic structure, electrons are drawn in concentric circles called... | electron shells |
| Name for the attraction between opposite electrical charges | electrical force |
| Why aren't the masses of electrons included in the atomic mass of an element? | Because electrons are so much lighter than protons and neutrons that their weight is comparably insignificant (1/1836th the mass) |
| Word meaning pure substance composed of atoms of only one kind | element |
| The breakdown process of radioisotopes in which an isotope emits subatomic particles or radiation in measurable amounts | radioactive decay |
| The decay rate of radioisotopes are commonly expressed by a value that indicates the time required for half of a given amount of an isotope to decay. | Half life |
| The unit used to express atomic weight of an element | atomic mass unit (amu) |
| Because isotopes of elements have different atomic weights, how is the atomic weight determined? | The atomic weight reflects proportions of different isotopes, and usually is closest to that of the most common isotope |
| Quantity with a weight in grams equal to that of the element's atomic weight | mole |
| A mole of any element always contains the same number of atoms as another element. What is the number called? | Avogadro's number, 6.023 x 10(^23), or about 600 billion trillion |
| What does it mean to say that atoms are electrically neutral? | every positively charged proton is balanced by a negatively charged electron |
| The outermost energy level of an atom that forms it's "surface" | valence shell |
| Atoms with a filled outermost energy level do not readily react with other atoms. These elements are called... | stable, inert, noble |
| Atoms with unfilled outermost energy level readily react with other atoms. These elements are called... | reactive |
| How do reactive atoms achieve stability? | By gaining, losing or sharing electrons to fill their outermost energy level |
| Interactions which hold participating atoms together after a reaction | Chemical bond |
| What is the difference between a molecule and a compound? | A molecule is atoms held together by covalent bonds. A compound is a pure chemical substance made up of atoms of two or more different elements regardless of the bond. |
| A molecule that is not a compound would be ... | Made up of only one element |
| A compound not made up of molecules would be ... | held together by bonds other than covalent |
| 2H+O -> H2O This is an example of what shorthand? | Chemical notation |
| Bonding between atoms or molecules that carry an electrical charge | ionic bond |
| positively charged ion | cation, |
| negatively charged ion | anion |
| What is the charge of an ion that has given up two electrons? (the donor) | +2 |
| What is the charge of an ion that has gained an electron? (the acceptor) | -1 (because the electron is negatively charged) |
| Once a donor ion has given up the electron(s) in its valence shell, it is "happy" - why? | Because now its outermost shell is full it is staqble, and it is close (ionicly bonded) to an ion that it's attracted to (the anion) |
| What is a combination of oppositely charged ions called? | Ionic compound (remember that for a substance to be a compound it only has to be composed of different elements) |
| Type of bond where electrons are shared between two atoms | covalent |
| An ion or molecule that contains unpaired electrons in its outermost energy level is called a... | free radical |
| Covalent bonding in which electrons are shared equally, and are very common. | Nonpolar covalent bonds |
| Polar covalent bonds create molecules with positive and negative ends, called... | Polar molecules |
| Name for the attraction between the transient positive charge on one part of a molecule and the transient negative charge on part of the same or a different molecule | Hydrogen bonds |
| Name for the barrier-like quality of water created by hydrogen bonding | surface tension |
| A substance that maintains its volume but do not have a fixed shape | liquid |
| The sum of the atomic weights of the component atoms of a molecule is called... | molecular weight |
| Term encompassing the formation of new chemical bonds and the breaking of existing bonds | Chemical reaction |
| The name for any substance(s) present before a chemical reaction | reactant |
| Name for any substance(s) present after a chemical reaction is complete | products |
| All of the reactions under way int he cells and tissues of the body at any given moment constitute its... | metabolism |
| The movement of an object or a change in the physical structure of matter | work |
| the capacity to perform work; movement or physical change requires this | energy |
| Energy that can be transferred to another object and perform work | Kinetic energy |
| energy that has the potential to do work and is stored | Potential energy |
| Each time an energy exchange occurs, some of the energy is released in the form of... | heat |
| Term defined as an increase in random molecular motion | Heat |
| A reaction that breaks a molecule into smaller fragments AB -> A+B | Decomposition reaction |
| Decomposition reaction in which a bond of the complex molecule is broken, and the components of water (H and OH) are aded | hydrolysis |
| Term meaning breaking covalent of bonds, as in decomposition reactions, within the cells and tissues of the body | catabolism |
| A reaction that assembles smaller molecules into larger molecules A+B -> AB | Synthesis |
| Synthesis reaction in which H and OH are removed from reactants and water is one of the products AH+BHO -> AB + H2O | Dehydration synthesis or condensation reaction |
| Term meaning creating covalent bonds and synthesizing new molecules within the cells and tissues of the body | Anabolism |
| Reaction where there are the same number of reactants and products with the same components, but in different combinations | AB+CD -> AC+BD |
| Many biological reactions are freely reversible. When the two reactions proceed at a balanced rate, this is called... | equilibrium |
| The amount of energy required to start a reaction is called the... | activation energy |
| Special proteins that promote chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy requirements | Enzymes |
| Enzymes belong to a class of compounds that accelerate chemical reactions without themselves being permanently changed called... | catalysts |
| The complex reactions that support life proceed in a series of interlocking steps controlled by specific enzymes. The sequence is called... | Metabolic pathway |
| A metabolic pathway that has a net release of energy is called... | exergonic |
| A metabolic pathway that has a net absorption of energy, it is called... | endergonic |
| Which type of reaction is responsible for maintaining body temperature? | exergonic (energy/heat releasing) |
| Metabolites that are essential elements and molecules normally obtained form the diet | nutrients |
| All molecules that can be synthesized or broken down by chemical reactions inside our bodies | Metabolites |
| Compounds that generally do not contain carbon and hydrogen | inorganic compounds |
| two elements present in all organic compounds | hydrogen and carbon |
| Give 2 important inorganic compounds in the body | CO2, O2, H2O, salts, acids, and bases |
| Water disolves a large amount of organic and inorganic molecules. The result of these solutes dispersed in water (the universal solvent), is... | a solution |
| Hydration synthesis and hydrolysis are two examples of how important water is in our bodies as a means of... | reactivity and chemical reaction |
| Water has a high ability to absorb and retain heat. This is known as its... | heat capacity |
| The slow process of changing the temp of 1g of water by 1-C is a property of water called... | thermal inertia |
| Water's ability to decrease friction between opposing forces, such as in the joint of a knee, is known as... | lubrication |
| In water, many inorganic compounds held together by ionic bonds undergo ... | dissociation or ionization |
| What a dissolved cation (+) is surrounded by the H polar end of water (-), or a dissolved anion(-) is surrounded by the O polar end of water (+), this forms... | hydration spheres |
| Soluble inorganic molecules whose ions conduct electrical current | electrolytes |
| Where are the 3 places in the body that ion concentrations are regulated most? | Kidneys (excretion) Digestive (absorption) Skeleton (store/release) |
| The term that describes the love for water that is formed by molecules with polar bonds | hydrophilic |
| The term that describes the inability to dissolve by molecules with nonpolar covalent bonds | hydrophobic |
| A mixture containing dispersed large molecules that are in solution (like proteins) | colloid |
| A mixture containing dispersed large particles that will settle out of solution (like blood cells) | Suspension |
| The dissociation of a water molecule results in... | a hydrogen ion and a hydroxide ion (H+ and OH-) |
| What does [H+] mean? | The concentration of hydrogen ions |
| Given the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution (mol/L), what is the pH? | The negative logarithm. For example, the concentration of H in water is 1 x 10(^-7)mol/L. So the pH is positive 7 |
| The pH scale runs from... | 0 to 14, 7 is neutral |
| pH of blood | 7.35 to 7.45 |
| any solute that dissociates in solution and releases hydrogen ions, thereby lowering pH. Proton donors. | Acid |
| any solute that removes hydrogen ions from a solution, thereby increasing pH. Proton acceptors. | Base |
| ionic compound containing any cation EXCEPT a hydrogen ion, and any anion EXCEPT a hydroxide ion | Salt |
| Compounds that stabilize the pH of a solution by removing or replacing H+ ions | Buffers |
| These systems usually involve a weak acid (like Carbonic acid) and it's related salt (like sodium bicarbonate), which functions as a weak base | buffer system |
| Organic molecule containing Carbon, Hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of near 1:2:1 | Carbohydrate |
| the monomer for carbohydrate | monosaccharide (sucrose, glucose) |
| The polymer for carbohydrate | disaccharide (sucrose), polysaccharide (glycogen, cellulose, plant starch) |
| What is the primary function of carbohydrates? | Energy |
| What functional groups are common to carbohydrates? | Hydroxyl(-OH), Aldehyde(H-C=O), Ketone(C=O) |
| What type of bonding occurs between carbohydrates? | Glycoside bond occurs between an alcohol (-OH) on one and another alcohol (-OH) on the other |
| What is the most important metabolic fuel in the body? | Glucose |
| molecules with the same formula but with different structures | isomers |
| What is the name of the polysaccharide that is known as "animal starch" | glycogen |
| Where is glycogen made and stored? | muscle cells |
| Which macromolecule has carbon and hydrogen in a ratio near 1:2 | Lipids |
| Besides Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen, what other molecules are in lipids? | Phosphorus, Nitrogen, Sulfur |
| What is the main function of lipids? | Stored energy and protection |
| What functional groups are commonly found in lipids? | Carboxyl (-COOH, P=C-OH) and alcohol (-OH) |
| What type of bonding is in lipids? | ester bonding between the carboxyl of one fatty acid and an alcohol on the glycerol |
| What are the monomers for lipids? | Fatty acids and Glycerol |
| What are the polymers for lipids? | Triglycerides, Phospholipids, steroids |
| What is the name of the part that makes up the "tail" of fatty acids? | hydrocarbon chain |
| When in solution, which end of a fatty acid associates with water molecules? | The carboxyl (which is the end that can bind with the glycerol) |
| How many double bonds are in a monounsaturated fatty acid? | one |
| How many double bonds are in a polyunsaturated acid? | Two or more |
| Lipids derived from arachidonic acid are called... | Eicosanoids |
| Where does the body get arachidonic acids? | From diet because they cannot be synthesized in the body |
| One eicosaniod that is produced mostly by cells involved with coordinating the response to injury or disease is called | Leukotrienes (Leuko means white, as in leukocytes, white blood cells, our immune response cells) |
| Eicosanoid synthesized in nearly all tissues that are short-chain fatty acids in which the five carbon atoms form a ring | Prostaglandins |
| Often called local hormones, these fatty acids are a type of messenger that affect only the area in which they are produced. | Prostaglandins |
| Which type of macromolecule cannot be strung together in a chain by dehydration synthesis? | Lipids. They require glycerol |
| a modified simple sugar to which fatty acids attach to form polymers | Glycerol, after reaction Glyceride |
| What is monoglyceride? | A modified simple sugar, glycerol, and a fatty acid |
| What is a polymer of fatty acids called? | diglyceride (glycerol + 2 fatty acids) and triglyceride (glycerol + 3 fatty acids) |
| What are two other names for triglycerides? | Triacylglycerols or neutral fats |
| What are the three important functions of triglycerides? | Energy source, insulation, protection (as in kidneys) |
| What roles do steroids play in the human body? | Choleterol in plasma membranes, sexual regulation (estrogen testosterone), adrenal hormones (corticosteroids and calcitriol), bile salts of liver |
| A polymer linking a diglyceride to a nonlipid group phosphate group | phospholipid |
| A carbohydrate attached to a diglyceride | glycolipid |
| The nonlipid heads of glycolipids are... | hydrophilic |
| A droplet with hydrophilic portions on the outside | micelle |
| Cholesterol, phospholipids, and glycolipids help form and maintain intracellular structures called membranes, and are therefore called... | structural lipids |
| Chains of amino acids are called | proteins |
| What is the most abundant organic component of the human body, and in many ways the most important? | Protein |
| Name a few essential functions of proteins | Support, movement (contractile proteins), transport, buffering, metabolic regulation, coordination and control, defense |
| Proteins consist of a long chain of organic molecules called | amino acids |
| A typical protein contains how many amino acids? | 1000, large complex proteins have 100,000 or more |
| Amino acids consist of these components | Central carbon, hydrogen, amino group, carboxyl group, R group |
| Tripeptides and larger molecules are called... | polypeptides |
| Because most proteins contain a side group that is negatively charged, the entire protein acts as an anion and is abbreviated... | Pr- |
| These proteins form extended sheets or stands that are usually the product of secondary structure, they are tough, durable, and generally insoluble playing structural roles | Fibrous proteins |
| These proteins must remain in aqueous solution to function, are compact, rounded. It has a rounded tertiary structure and makes up myoglobin, enzymes, hormones, and other proteins | Globular proteins |
| What determines the function of a protein? | the shape, which is determined by the sequence of amino acids and can be altered by altering ionic composition, pH, proximity to other molecules in solution, or temperature |
| What is the term given to reactants in an enzymatic reaction? | Substrate |
| The location to which a substrate binds to an enzyme is called the... | active site, a groove or pocket into which the substrate fits like a key |
| Are substrates organic or inorganic | both or either |
| basic characteristic of enzymes that refers to the ability of active sites to bind to only substrates with particular shapes and charges | Specificity |
| Different tissues typically contain enzymes that differ slightly in structure buy catalyze the same reaction. These enzymes are called... | Isozymes |
| Basic characteristic of enzymes that refers to the substrate concentration required to have the maximum rate of reaction | Saturation limit |
| Basic characteristic of enzymes that refers to the ability of outside forces to turn an enzyme "on" or "off" by changing the tertiary or quaternary shape of the enzyme | Regulation |
| An ion or molecule that must bind to the enzyme before substrates can bind to it, an example of enzyme regulation | Cofactor |
| Cofactor ions such as calcium and magnesium bind to an enzyme in such a way that they... | change the shape of the the active site |
| Nonprotein organic molecules that function as cofactors and generally come from vitamins | Coenzymes |
| Term meaning change in shape causing deterioration of function by alteration of pH or increase in temperature | Denaturation |
| Combination of protein and carbohydrate that has larger protein and therefore has a more protein-like role and secrets mucin | glycoPROTEIN |
| Large polysaccharide molecules linked by polypeptide chains that give tissue fluids a viscous consistency | proteoGLYCANS |
| Large organic molecules composed of C H O N P | Nucleic acid |
| Two classes of nucleic acids | DNA and RNA |
| List the parts of a nucleotide | A pentose sugar, attached to a nitrogenous base and a phosphate group |
| Purines | Adenine Guanine |
| Pyrimidines | Cytosine Thymine Uracil |
| What makes up the backbone of nucleic acid molecules? | Alternating sugar and phosphate |
| Process of obtaining energy by breaking down organic substrates | catabolism |
| ATP and other molecules formed by binding phosphate groups to organic molecules are... | high-energy compounds |
| What enzyme is responsible for converting ATP to ADP, releasing energy? | Adenosine Triphosphatase or ATPase |
| Biochemical building blocks | cells |
| The continuous removal and replacement of organic molecules other than DNA in a cell is part of the process called... | metabolic turnover |
| The average time between synthesis and breakdown of an organic molecule in a cell | turnover time |
| Organic molecules that can provide a sweet taste without adding substantial amounts of calories | artificial sweetener |
| Group of elements including trace cobalt, copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum, zinc, and harmful cadmium, antimony, chromium, mercury, lead, arsenic | Heavy metals |
| The presence of excess cholesterol in the blood | hypercholesterolemia |
| sickness resulting from exposure to radiation: fatigue, nausea, vomiting, loss of teeth and hair | Radiation sickness |
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