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Chapter 7
Unit 2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Even though the Maya collapsed more than a thousand years ago, what still persists? | The language and folkways among about 6 million people in the Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, and Honduras. |
| What was the most dramatic part of the Maya revival in early 1994? | An armed uprising led by the Zapatista Army of National Liberation, which focused global attention on the povery and misery of the Mayan people. |
| In early 1994, what was the armed uprising in Maya caused by? | Long-term social and economic grievances against local landowners and an unresponsive government. |
| How was the world's population distributed during the classical era? | Very unevenly across the 3 giant continents. |
| Why didn't any pastoral societies develop in the Americas? | Their wasn't any animals capable of domestication. |
| When historians refer to Africa during the classical era, what are they generally speaking of? | A geographic concept or a continental landmass, not a cultural identity. |
| What ensured variation and differences among Africa's people? | Environmental variations combined with the continent's enormous size. |
| What was Africa's one distinctive environmental feature? | It was bisected by the equator, creating the most tropical continent of the world's 3 supercontinents. |
| What did persistent warm temperatures cause in Africa? | The rapid decomposition of vagetable matter called humus, which resulted in poor, less fertile soil and a less productive agriculture. It also spawned disease carrying insects and parasites, which have caused serious health problems. |
| What part of Africa was incorporated in the Roman Empire, and what was it used for? | North Africa. It was used to produce wheat and olives on large estates with slave labor. |
| What religion spread widely in Africa, and what famous theologian did it give rise to? | Christianity. Saint Augustine. |
| What was Africa in close proximity to that helped shpe its history? | Eurasia |
| What was a point of contact with the larger world for African peoples? | Arabia |
| What domesticated animal came to Africa? Where did it come from? What did it do/cause? | The camel from Arabia. It generated a nomadic pastoral way of life among some of the Berber peoples of the western Sahara, and later, it made possible tran-s Saharan commerce, which linked interior West Africa to Mediterranean civilizations. |
| What 3 regions in Africa illistrate differences and many social and cultural experiments? | northeastern Africa, the Niger River basin in West Africa, and the vast world of Bantu-speaking Africa south of the equator. |
| What civilization was in the Nile Valley south of Egypt? | The Nubian civilization. |
| What relationship did the Nubian civilization have with Egypt? | They traded and fought with them, and borrowed heavily from them, but still managed to remain distinct and seperate. |
| When Egypt fell under foreign control, where did the Nubian civilization center on? | The sounthern city of Meroe. |
| Who governed the Kingdom of Meroe? | An all-powerful and sacred monarch. |
| What were the prominent industries in Meroe? | The smelting of iron and the maufacture of iron tools and weapons. |
| Unlike Egypt, what did Meroe not need to depend on? | Irrigation. |
| Where did Meroe's wealth and military power come from? | Extensive long-distance trading connections, to the north via the Nile, and to the east and west by camel caravans. |
| What caused the decline of the Kingdom of Meroe? | Deforestation caused by the need for wood to make charcoal for smelting iron and the king's conquest by the neighboring and rising state of Axum. |
| In the centuries following the decline of Meroe, what happened? | 3 seperate Nubian states emerged, and Christianity penetrated the region. |
| What ended the Christian civilization after the decline of Meroe? | Political division, Arab immigration, and the penetration of Islam. |
| What modern day countries make up Axum? | Eritrea and northern Ethiopia. |
| What was Axum's economic foundation? What was different about it than the rest of Africa? | A highly productive agriculture. It used a plow-based farming system instead of relying on the hoe or digging stick like the rest of Africa. |
| What hightly nutritious grain is unique ti Axum's region? | Teff |
| What provided a major source of revenue for the Axumite state? | Taxes on trade at Adulis, then the largest port of the East African coast. |
| What was the interior capital city of Axum called, and what was it the center of? | Axum, the center of monumental buildings and royal patronage of the arts. |
| What were the most famous buildings in the capital city of Axum? | Obelisks, which likely marked royal graves and were the largest structures taken from a single piece of rock. |
| What language did the Axum speak at court, in town, and during commerce? Where did it come from? | Geez, written in a script derived from South Arabia. |
| How was Axum introduced to Christianity? | Through its connections to Red Sea trade and the Roman world, particularly Egypt. Also the current monarch, King Ezana, adopted it at the same time as Constantine. |
| What did Egypt evetually largely become in terms of religion? | Islamic |
| What distinctive Christian church in Egypt was well established when Christianity took root in Axum? | The Coptic |
| What did Axum mount a campaign for during the 4th-6th centuries C.E.? | Imperial expansion that took its forces into the Kingdom of Meroe and across the Red Sea into Yemen and South Arabia. |
| Why did the Axumite state decline? | Environmental changes such as soil exhaustion, erosion, and deforestation brought about by extensive farming. Also the rise of Islam altered trade routes and diminished the revenue available to the Axumite state. |
| What happened when the state of Axum was revived? | It was centered farther south on the Ethiopian plateau, and the Christian chruch and the state that present day Ethiopia inherited emerged. |
| What did Meroe and Axum have in common? | They were a smaller scale of the major features of the classical civilizations of Eurasia, and both were in direct contact with the world of Mediterranean civilizations. |
| Why did people from the southern Sahara move to the middle of Niger? | They had had a prolonged dry period and were in search of more reliable access to water. |
| What urban cluster in Niger is the most fully studied? | Jenne-jeno |
| What did the people who came to Niger from the southern Sahara bring with them? | Domesticated cattle, sheep, and goats; their agricultural skills, and their ironworking technology. |
| What was one of the most distinctive features of the Niger Valley civilization that was unlike most others? | They didn't have a cooresponding state structure. Instead, they were complex urban centers that managed to operate without the coercive authority of the state. |
| What civilization does the Niger Valley civilization resemble? | The Indus Valley |
| How did Jenne-jeno and others cities emerge in the Niger Valley? | As clusters of economically specialized settlements surrounding a larger central town. |
| In the Niger Valley, what was the earliest and most prestigious of the specialized occupations? What did they use in this job? | Iron working. Fire and earth, or ore, produced this useful metal. |
| What other specializations in Niger Valley grew up around the central towns? | Cotton weavers, potters, leather workers, farmers, and griots (praise-singers who preserved and recited the oral traditions of their societies). |
| In the Niger Valley, what did urban artisan communities gradally become? | Occupational castes where members passed their jobs and skills to their children and could only marry within their own group. |
| In the Niger Valley, what did economic groups share, and what was different? | They shared authority and voluntarily used the services on one another, but they maintained their own identites through physical seperation. |
| What was the cause of long-distance commerce in the Niger Valley? What did they have though? | The scarcity of the resources stone, iron, ore, salt, and fuel. But they did have a rich agriculture with clay for pottery, which came from the middle Niger floodplain. |
| How did commerce in the Niger Valley operate? | By boat along the Niger river, or by donkey on land to the north and south. |
| What city in the Niger Valley was an important transshipment point? What traded items did they recieve? | Jenne-jeno. They had iron ore, copper, gold, stones, and salt. |
| Where is the Niger Valley civilization? | West Africa |
| During the second millenium in West Africa, what new historical patterns emerged? What did it cause? | A number of large-scale states or empires emerged, and Islam penetrated the region. It submerged the decentralized city life of the Niger Valley. |
| What was responsible for large-scale states/empires emerging in West Africa? | The flourishing of camel-borne trans-Saharan commerce. |
| What were some of the large-scale states and empires the emerged in West Africa during the second millennium? | Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. |
| In southoern Africa, what was most significant development of the classical era? | The accelerating movement of Bantu-speaking peoples into the enormous subcontinent. |
| What is Bantu? | Some 400 dinstinct but closely related languages. |
| What was Bantu expansion like? | It was a slow movement of peoples taken as a whole. |
| What did Bantu expansion bring to Africa south of the equator? | A measure of cultural and linguistic commonality. |
| What did the movement of people in Bantu Africa generate? | Cross-cultural encounters |
| With whom was the most significant encounter with with the Bantu people? | The gathering and hunting people who earlier occupied Africa south of the equator. |
| What advantages did Bantu-speaking farmers have over the gathering and hunting peoples, which caused them to be largely eliminated in most parts of Africa? | They has larger numbers living in smaller areas due to agriculture generating a more productive economy, they brought diseases with them to which foraging people had little immunity, and they had iron, which was useful for tools and weapons. |
| Where did gathering and hunting peoples survive in Africa? What is an example of one such group? | In the Kalahari region of southwestern Africa and a few places in East Africa. An example is the San. |
| What do many of the Bantu languages of southern Africa retain? | The distinctive clicks they borrowed from the now vanished gathering and hunting peoples. |
| In the rain forest region of Central Africa, how did the foraging Batwa interact with the Bantu? | Some became forest specialists who produced items that entered regional trading networks in exchange for the agricultural products of their Bantu neighbors. They also adopted Bantu languages. |
| How did Bantu farmers regard their Batwa neighbors? | As first-comers to the region, and therefore, closest to the ancestral and territorial spirits that determined the fertility of the land and people. |
| What happened as forest-dwelling and Bantu-speaking farmers grew in numbers? | They created chiefdoms, where those chiefs were given the Batwa title of "owners of the land". They also claimed Batwa ancestory and portrayed the Batwas as the original civilizers of the earth. |
| In the dry environment of East Africa, what happened when the yam-based agriculture of the West African Bantu homeland was unable to support their growing numbers? | Bantu farmers adopted grains and domesticated sheep and cattle from the already-established people in the region. |
| How was Bantu agriculture enriched? | They acquired a variety of food crops from Southeast Asia: coconuts, sugarcane, and bananas. |
| What did Bantu farmers spread throughout eastern and southern Africa? | Their agriculture and acquired ironworking technology. |
| How did Bantu-speaking peoples, such as in present day Kenya, organize themselves without any formal political specialists? | They made decisions, resolved conflicts, and maintained order by using kinship structures or lineage principles supplemented by age grades. In some places, a lineage head who was skillful at meditating would become a chief or modest political authority. |
| What did the kind of society that developed in any particular area depend on? | Population density, trading opportunities, and interaction among culturally different peoples. |
| What did Bantu place less emphasis on in terms of religion? What did they focus on? | They placed less emphasis on a High or Creator God. Instead, they focused on ancestral or mature spirits. |
| In Bantu, who were diviners and what did they do? | They were skilled in penetrating the world of the supernatural, and used dream, visions, charms, or trances to identify a source of misfortune and to prescribe remedies. |
| In Bantu, where did supernatural power come from, and what was it used for? | It came from ancient heroes, ancestors, or nature spirits. It was used to control rain, defend the village, achieve success in hunting, and to identify witches. |
| What was different about Bantu religious practices? | It worked on the notion of "continuous revelation", which is the possibility of constantly recieving new messages from the world beyond. It was also georaphically confined, intended to explain, predict, and control local affiars with no missionary impulse |
| What was important in the Eastern hemisphere that early American civilizations and cultures managed without? | Large domestic animals and ironworking. |
| Where is the area known as Mesoamerica? | From central Mexico to northern Central America. |
| In Mesoamerica, what did environmental diversity contribute to? | Substantial linguistic and ethnic diversity and many distinct and competing cities, chiefdoms, and states. |
| Although regions in Mesoamerica were all distinct, what did they have in common? | Agricultural technology, economies based on market exchange, practicing religions with similar deities, belief in a cosmic style of creation/destruction, human sacrifice, and monumental ceremonial centers, they interacted a lot, and had the same calender. |
| What Mesoamerican civilization has attracted the most attention? | The Maya |
| Where have scholars traced the beginnings of the Maya people? | To ceremonial centers constructed in present-day Guatemala and the Yucatan region of Mexico. |
| What math achievements did the Maya accomplish? | They created the concept of 0 and place notation. They were capable of complex caluculations. They also used this math to plot the cycles of planets, predict eclipses. construct calendars, and to calculate the length of the solar year. |
| What was the Mayan writing system like? | It was the most elaborate in the Americas, and used pictographs and phonetic/syllabic elements. They recorded historical events, masses of astronomical data, and religious or mythological texts. |
| How did early scholars view the Maya? | As a peaceful society led by gentle priest-kings devoted to temple building and intellectual pursuits. |
| How did the Maya engineer their landscape? | They drained swamps, terraced hillsides, flattened ridgetops, and constructed an elaborate water management system. |
| What did a flourishing agriculture in the Maya support and sustain. | Supported a rapidly growing and dense population, and sustained elite classes of nobles, priests, merchants, architects, sculptors, and artisans who produced pottery, tools, and cotton textiles. |
| How did many Mayan achievements take place? | Within a highly fragmented political system of city-states, landlords, and regional kingdoms with no central authority, with frequent warfare, and the extensive capture and sacrifice of prisoners. |
| What were the larger political units of Maya? | Densely populated urban and ceremonial centers ruled by powerful kings who were divine rulers or "state shamans" able to mediate between humankind and the supernatural. |
| Who did classical Maya most closely resemble? | The competing city states of Mesopotamis and classical Greece. |
| Even though some city-states were imperilaistic, what did they nevr succedd in doing? | Creating a unified Maya empire. |
| What was the collapse of the Maya like? | The population drastically dropped from famine, epidemic, and warfare. Elements of the culture survived in scattered settlements, but the great cities were deserted and large scale construction and art ceased. |
| What are some possible explanations for the collapse of the Maya? | Rapid population growth that outstripped resources causing climate change such as droughts, political disunity and rivalries, and an increase in warfare for scarce land. |
| What is unknown about the city Teotihuacan in Mesoamerica? | Its original name, the language of its people, the kind of government they had, and the precisoe function of its many deities. |
| Where is the city of Teotihuacan in Mesoamerica? | In the Valley of Mexico |
| How large is Teotihuacan? | It was the largest urban complex in the Americas at the time, and one of the 6 largest in the world. |
| In what ways was Teotihuacan in Mesoamerica enourmously impressive? | They had grand homes for elite on the Street of the Dead, the Pyramid of the Sun, which was the bitrhplace of the sun and moon, and the Temple of the Feathered Serpent, where high-ranking people were buried and where sacrificial victims to go with them. |
| In Teotihuacan, what was off the main avenues in a gridlike pattern of streets? | Thousands of residential apartment compounds which were homes for the city's commoners. |
| What were buildings decorated with in Teotihuacan? | Mural paintings, sculptures, and carvings displaying abstract geometric and stylized images. |
| What did Teotihuacan not have that the Maya did? | A self-glorified ruler or individual, and a tradition of written public inscriptions, although they did have a limited form of writing, suggested by a number of glyphs and characters. |
| What was Teotihuacan's army like? | Very powerful. They completely took over a Mayan city, but also had diplomatic relationships with some people. |
| What was Teotihuacan's political and military activity designed to do? | Obtain, by trade or tribute, valued goods from far away. |
| What did the presence of foreigners in Teotihuacan provide? | Evidence of long distance trade. |
| Why did bleak deserts in the Andes support human habitation? | They were cut by dozens of rivers flowing down from the mountains, which offered the possibility of irrigation and cultivation. |
| What did the offshore waters of the Pacific do for the Andes civilizations? | Provided a rich marine envrionment with an endless supply of seabirds and fish. |
| What were the Andes thenselves like? | They were a towering mountain chain with many highland valleys and affording numerous ecological niches, depending on altitude. |
| What is the most well known civilization of the Andes? | The Incas-15th century |
| What did no civilization in the Andes develop? What did historians have to rely on because of this? | Writing, depended on archeology. |
| What did archeologists uncover in coastal and highland regions of Peru? How were they shaped and what were they associated with? | Local ceremonial centers and temple complexes. Often contructed in a U shape and are associated with small-scale irrigation projects and the growing authority of religious leaders. |
| What Andean city became the focus of religious movement? Where was it located? | Chavin. It was high in the Andes and situated on trade routes to both the coastal region to the west and the Amazon rain forest to the east. |
| What class in Chanvin had a clear distinction? | The elite class, who lived in stone houses, compared to the ordinary people, who lived in adobe dwellings. |
| What do we know little about in Chavin? What is suggested about it? | Rituals or beliefs of their religious practice. Artwork suggests it drew on ideas from the desert coastal region and and the rain forests. |
| In Chavin, what does their artwork reflect? | The visions of religious leaders. |
| What did a widespread religious cult, which traveled on the back of a trading network in Chavin, provide? | A measure of economic and cultural integration to much of the Peruvian Andes. |
| What replaced the Chavin? | The Moche civilization. |
| Where was Moche? | Mesoamerica. On a 250-mile stretch of Peru's northern coast, and incorpoarted 13 river valleys. |
| What was Moche economy rooted in? | A complex irrigation system that required constant maintenaance and funneled runoff from the Andes into fields with crops. |
| Who was Moche governed by, and where did some of them live? | Warrior-priests. Some lived aotp huge pyramids. |
| What was the largest pyramid in Moche and what was it used for? | The Pyramid of the Sun. Shaman-rulers conducted ancient rituals that mediated between the world of humankind and the gods, and they also preside over the ritual sacrifice of human victims from war prisoners. |
| For rulers, what was the Moche world? | One of war, ritual, and diplomacy. |
| Where was the immense wealth of the warrior-priest elite reflected? | In the elaborate burials accorded to rulers. |
| Who are the Lords of Sipan? | 3 individuals in Moche, discovered by Peruvian archeologists, who had an elaborate burial. |
| Where did much of what scholars know about Moche life come from? | The skill of the craftspeople, such as metalworkers, potters, weavers, and painters. |
| In Moche, who do we not know much about? | The daily life of the farmers, fishermen, weavers, traders, contructin workers, and servants whose labor made the elite culture possible. |
| What environmental problems did Moche face? | Droughts, earthquakes, and occasional torrential rains associated with El Nino. |
| In Moche, when environmental problems caused extended ecological disruption, want happened to the Moche? | They were vulnerable to aggressive neighbors and possibly internal social tensios. |
| Besides the Chavin and Moche, what were some other civilizations in Mesoamerica that came before the Incas? | The Nazca, the city of Tiwanaku, and the Huari and Chimu kingdoms. |
| What group of peoples settled in substantial regions of the Americas? | Gathering and hunting peoples |
| Who populated the eastern woodlands of the U.S., Central America, the Amazon basin, and the Caribbean islands? | Semi-sedentary peoples. These were agricultural societies that supported smaller populations and didn't generatelarge urban centers or empires. |
| Where did the Ancestral Pueblo live and what was it like? | The southwestern region of North America, which was an arid land cut by mountain ranges and large basins. |
| What crop became the basis of agricultural living in the Ancestral Pueblo? Where did it come from? | Maize. It came from Mesoamerica. |
| What was village life like in The Ancestral Pueblo | People lived in pit houses with floors sunk several feet below ground and individual settlements were linked to one another in local trading networks. |
| What were kivas and what did they symbolize in the Ancestral Pueblo? | Large pit structures used for ceremonial purposes. They symbolized the widespread belief that humankind emerged into this world from another world below. |
| In The Ancestral Pueblos, what gave rise to larger settlememts and adjacent aboveground structures known as pueblos? | Growing dependence on agriculture, increasing population, and more intensive patterns of change. |
| Where did the most spectacular pueblos take shape in The Ancestral Pueblo? | In Chaco canyon in what is now northwestern New Mexico. |
| What was the largest town, or "great house" in the Chaco Phenomenon? | The Peublo Bonito, which stood 5 stories high and had over 600 rooms. Hundreds of miles of road also radiated out from Chaco. |
| What do scholars think the roads in Chaco may have represented? | A sacred landscape that was perhaps an entrance to the underworld. |
| Who were among the Chaco elite and why did they do? | Highly skilled astronomers who constructed an observatory of three large rocks slabs situated so as to throw a beam of light across a sprial rock carving behind it during the summer solstice. |
| What was Chaco a dominant center for, and what did it become a major item of? | The production of turquoise ornaments, which became a major item of regional commerce. |
| What ended the Chaco? Where did the inhabitants go? | An extended period of drought during which warfare, internal conflict, and occasional cannibalism occured. Inhabitants scattered in small communities that later became the Pueblo peoples of more recent times. |
| What did the eastern woodlands of North America and the Mississippi River valley host? | An independent Agricultural Revolution |
| Where did the name "Mound Builders" come from? | People who created societies distinguished by arrays of large earthen mounds. |
| What is the most elaborate and widespread of the mound-building cultures? | The Hopewell culture. |
| In the Hopewell culture, what was significant and what were they used for? | Burial mounds and geometric earthworks, and the wide variety of artifacts within them. They were the focus of elaborate burial riutals, and some were aligned with the moon to predict lunar eclipses. |
| What is the "Hopewell Interaction Sphere"? | Linking this huge region in a loose network of exchange, as well as a measure of cultural borrowing of religious ideas and practices within this immense area. |
| What took shape as corn-based agriculture began in the mound-building peoples? | Larger populations and more complex societies began to emerge. |
| What was the dominant center of the mound-building peoples? | Cahokia, near present day St.Louis MI. It was the focal point of the community and the center of a widespread trading network. |
| What was simliar and different about Cahoki and the Chaco canyon? | Both flourished around the same time and were made possible by the arrival of corn-based agriculture. Cahoki had larger urban presence and had long history. Chaco had more direct contact with Mexico and emerged as a start up culture with shallow history. |
| What does the evidence from burials and later Spanish observers suggest about the Cahoki and other centers of the Mississippian culture? | They were stratified societies with a clear elite and with rulers to mobilize the labor required to build enourmous structures. |
| What of the Mississippi chiefdoms greatly impressed European observors? | Their military capacity |
| What did Spanish and French explorers encounter well after the Cahokia had declined and was abandoned. | Another such chiefdom among the Natchez people. |
| What is the criteria for deciding what is important in world history and what to include and leave out? | Duration, change, turning points in human experience, influence, the availability of evidence, and the location of the historian and their audience. |
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