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Chapter 6
Unit 2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Where did the ideas, religions, and values of classical civilizations in Eurasia come from? | They derived from local folkways and from the teachings of the great religious or cultural traditions. |
| What did Chinese officials represent? | The cultural and social elite of Chinese civilization. |
| What were Chines officials? | Bureaucrats acting in the name of the emperor both in the capitol and provinces. |
| Why was Chinese society unique? And where was it most apparent? | It was unique because it was shaped by the actions of the state. It was most apparent in the political power and immense social prestige of Chinese state officials. |
| What was the official's class's origins in China? | Early Chinese rulers who found administrators loyal to the central state rather than their families and regions. |
| How did philosophers like Confucius select officals in China? | On the basis of merit and personal morality instead of birth and wealth. |
| How were officials chosen in China? | Rulers required each province to send promising men to the capital. There were examined and chosen for offical postions based on their performance. |
| What did the system of selecting officials in China evolve into? | The world's first professional civil service. |
| What did Emperor Wu Di establish in China? | An imperial academy where potential officals were trained as scholars and immersed in Chinese classical texts. |
| In China, who did the examination system for officals favor and why? | Those whose families were wealthy, because they could afford the years of education required to pass. |
| What helped in gaining a position among the Chinese elites? | Having family connections to the imperial court and being close to the capital. |
| Could the poor or lower classes study to be an official in China? | Yes. They could be sponsered by a village or local landowner. |
| What did the examination system in China measure? | Social mobility |
| Why did a class of large landowners emerge in China? | Because of the pressures of populatoin growth, taxation, and indebtdness, peasents had to sell their lands. |
| What happend to the examination system in China in later dynasties? | It grew to be even more elaborate and became an enduring and distinuishing feature of the civilization. |
| What happened to those who made in into the bureaucracy in China? | They got high privileges and enourmous prestige. |
| What were the official to Chinese culture? | The bearers and makers of it. |
| What did wealth mean in China? | Land |
| Why were landlords of large estates opposed by authorities in China? | They were able to avoid paying taxes, which decreased state revenue and increased the taxes for peasants. They could also gather their own military forces that might challenge the authority of the emperor. |
| In China, who tried to counteract the growing power of landowners? | Wang Mang, a high court official of the Han dynasty. |
| Why did Wang Mang try to counteract the growing power of landowners in China? | He was a firm believer in Confucian government, and saw his reforms as re-creating a golden age where small-scale peasent farmers were the backbone of society. |
| What did Wang Mang do in his reform to stop the growing power of large landowners in China? | He orderd private estates to be divided up among the landless, had governments give loans to peasant families, limited the amount of land a family might own, and ended private slavery. |
| What led to the collapse of Wang Mang's reforms in China. | Opposition from wealthy landowners, nomadic invasions, poor harvests, floods, famines, and his assassination. |
| What did the landlord class in China benefit from? | Their wealth and the pwer and prestige acommpanying their education and memebership to the official elite. |
| How did the "scholar-gentry" class live in China, and who were they? | They were the landowners. They lived in urban and rural areas, and lived luxuriously. |
| What was the majority of the population in China? | Peasants |
| In China, why did the peasants have it so hard? | State authorites required the payment of taxes, demanded a month's labor every year, and conscripted young men for two years of military service |
| In China, what did the peasant's conditinons provoke? | Periodic peasant rebellions |
| What was the Yellow Turban Rebellion? | A massive peasant uprising in China, which devastated the economy, weakened the state, and contributed to the overthrow of the dynasty a few years later. But they were suppressed by military forces in the Han dynasty. |
| What did peasants in the Yellow Turban rebellion look forawrd to? | The Great Peace, which was a golden age of equality and social harmony. |
| What popular form unified the Yellow Turban rebellion? | Daoism |
| Although peasants in China were exploited, why were they also honored and celebrated? | They were the solid productive backbone, and their hard work and endurance in the face of difficulties was worthy of praise. |
| Who did not have a good reputation in China and why? | The merchants. They were seen as unproductive and greedy, making a shameful profit from selling the work of others. They were also seen as a social threat. |
| Why were merchants seen as a social threat in China? | Their ill-gained wealth impoverished others, deprived the state of needed revenues, and fostered resentments. |
| In China, what did state authorities do to merchants? | Tried to keep them under control by forbidding them to do things or forcing them to loan large sums of money to the state. |
| In China, did merchants become wealthy, and how? | Yes. Some purchased landed estates or educated their sons for the civil service examination. Others had backdoor relationships with state officals to landlords. |
| What shared features did China and India share in their social organizations? | Birth mainly determined social status, little social mobility, sharp distinctions and great inequalities characterized social life, and religious/cultural traditions defined these inequalities as natural, eternal, and ordained by the gods. |
| What does the Portuguese word "casta" mean? | race or purity of blood. |
| What was the early theory of the origins of the caste system in China? | It evolved from an encounter between light-skinned Aryan invaders and the darker-hued natives. |
| What is the only thing we know about the origin of the caste system in India? | It grew out of the interaction of culturally different peoples on the South Asian peninsula with the development of economic and social differences. |
| In India, at the beginning of the classical era, how was society divided? | Into 4 ranked classes known as varna. |
| What were the four classes of varna in India? | The Brahmins, the Kshatriya class, the Vausya ckass, and the Sudras. |
| Who were the Brahmins in India? | Priests whose rituals and sacrifices ensured the proper functioning of the world. They were also tribal medicine men and sorcerors. |
| Who was in the Kshatriya class in India? | Warriors and rulers who protected and governed society. |
| Who was in the Vaisya class in India? | Commoners who cultivated the land. And later became a business class with merchants. |
| In India, what were the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, and Vaisyas regarded as and why? | Pure Aryans and the "twice-born".They experienced not only physical birth but also formal initiation into their varnas and satus of a person of Aryan descent. |
| In India, who were the Sudras? | Native peoples incorporated in the margins of Aryan society in very low positions.. They were regarded as servants of their social betters and were valued little. It became the domain of peasan farmers. |
| According to the varna theory, what did the 4 classes form? | The body of the god Purusha. |
| Why were members of the Kshatriya and Brahmin groups frequently in conflict? | They argued over who ranked higher in the varna hierarchy. |
| In India, what new category emerged, ranking lower than the Sudras? What did they do? | The untouchables. They did the work considered unclean and polluting. |
| In India, what occupationally based groups blended with the varna system? | The jatis |
| What was a jati? | A subcaste associated with one of the great classes, or varnas. Each one had its own rules, duties, and obligations. |
| What did each jati define? | Its members' uniques and seperate place in larger society. |
| Why was the social system in India so unique? | They had a set of ideas explaining and justifying the social system. One of these was the notion of ritual purity and pollution of higher castes when they associated with lower classes. |
| How did the Hindu notions of karma, dharma, and rebirth relate to your caste in India? | Yuo born into a caste based on your good or bad deeds (karma) of a previous life. You had to be faithful and have selfless performance in your present caste to have hope of rebirth in a higher one (dharma). |
| What could each jati do to its members who violated the rules, and why was it bad? | They could expel the,, which meant the end of recognized social life and social support. |
| What happened as caste restrictions in India tightened? | It became near impossible to raise social status. |
| What upward mobility was there in India and how? | Jatis could be redefined in a higher category by aquiring land or wealth, adopting higher caste behaviors, or finding an ovrelooked "ancestor" of a higher caste. |
| How did India differ from China in terms of the social system? | It gave priority or religous status instead ofelevating political positions, Indian society had more distince social groups, and defined them more rigidly with less opportunity for mobility. |
| Why did India never experience an empire that encompassed the entire subcontinent, like China? | Jati/caste was very local, which kept people on restricted territory and weakedend the appeal/authority of all-Indian states. |
| What happened when you incorporated in the Chinese civilization? | You became Chines ethnically, linguistically, and culturally. |
| What happened when you incorporated in the Indian civilization? | You could find a place within a the civilization but still retain some of your unique identity. |
| What provided the model for enslaving people? | The domestication of animals. |
| What contributed to the growth of slavery? | War, patriarchy, and the notion of private property. |
| What were class inequalities of early civilizations based on? | Great differences in privatle owned property. |
| What did being a slave mean? | Owenership by a master, the possibility of being sold, working with pay, and being an "outsider" and the bottom of the social hierarchy. |
| What have slave systems throughout history varied in? | The labor they were required to do. |
| What happend to slaves in classical Breece and Rome? | They might be emancipated through religious convictions or their owners to avoid caring for them in old age. Or they could purchase their freedom with their own funds. |
| How big was slavery in China? | Very small. It was not widespread and never became a major source for agriculture or manufacturing. |
| Who were among the earliest slaves in the Han dynasty? | Conviceted criminals and their familes who were taken by the government and sold to the wealthy. Peasants could sell their children, or the wealthy could purchase teen boys from the poor. |
| Who were slaves in India? | Criminals, debtors, or prisoners of war. |
| How were slaves protected in India? | Religious writings and secular laws kept owners from abandoning them in old age and allowed them to be provided for adequately. |
| Why was slavery in India more restrained? | Slaves could inherit and own property, and earn money in their spare time. The law encouraged owners to free their slaves, and slaves could buy their freedom. If wrong was done to them, the master had to set them free and pat compensation. |
| Did India depend on slavery? | No, most work was done by the free, lower-caste people. |
| What was slavery like IN the Roman society? | Huge. Wealthy Romans could own hundreds or thousands of slaces, and most people owned at least 2-3. Former slaves could even own slaves. |
| What was slavery like in Greek civilization? | Most households, including the poor, owned slaves. Slaves usually did not become citizens or gain political rights, and they could not own land or marry citizens. |
| Why did people of modest means own slaves in the Roman empire? | It confirmed their own position as free, demonstarted their social status, and expressed their ability to exercise power. |
| Where did most Roman slaves come from? | They were prisoners captured in the many wars accompanying the creation of the empire. It also occured through natural reproduction and abandoned or exposed children. |
| How were "home-born" slaves seen? | They had a certain prestige and were thought to be less troublesome since they had never known freedom. |
| What was different about Roman slavery? | It was not identified with a particular racial or ethnic group. |
| How did Romans, and slave owners everywhere, regard their slaves? | As barbarians, and certain peoples were though of as slaves by nature. |
| Why was slavery deeply embedded in the religious thinking and social outlook of elite Romans? | There was no serious criticism of slavery in principle, and Christianity did not undermine slavery, but instead agreed with it. |
| What one occupation could a slave not do? | Military service. |
| How did most slaves work? | Side by side. |
| Where were slaves represented in Rome? | Everywhere. They were among the highest and most prestigious occupations, and also the lowest. |
| How were slaves in Rome treated by their masters? | Owners were supposed to provide neccessities, but were often beat, sold, and sexually abused. Their possessions could be seized at any moment, and they could not marry. |
| How did Roman slaves respond to enslavement? | Most did what they had to do to survive, but some committed mass suicide rather than face slavery, others committed small crimes or fled to the city or remote rural areas. |
| What happened when slaves ran away from their master? What did it become? | Owners would post notices in public places, asking for information abouut them. It became an organized private business. |
| Who was Spartacus? | A slave gladiator who led a famous uprising in a desperate bid of freedom. |
| What did Spartacus' uprising do? | It atrracted many rebellious slaves because of its initial success, and for 2 years, they crucified captured slave owners and set others to fighting one another in the style of gladiators. |
| When and why did Spartacus' movement split, and what happended after? | After a series of remarkable military victories, they were succumbed to the vastlu superior numbers of the Roman legions. After this, 6,000 slaves were nailed to crosses along the Appina Way from Rome to Capua, where the revolt began. |
| What did the slaves in the Roman slave rebellions want to do? | Escape slavery themselves instead of freeing society altogether. |
| What has every community elaborated? | The basic biological difference into a gender system that determined the appropriate roles of men and women in society. |
| What have all gender systems been since the First Civilizations? | Patriarchal |
| In the First Civilizations, how were men regarded? | As superior to women, and sons were preferred ovre daughters. |
| What rights did men have that women did not? | Thy had legal and property rights, and could participate in public life. They could also marry more than on women and regulated the livse of their wives, daughters, and sisters. |
| What developments generated change in gender systems? | New agricultural technologies, the rise and decline of powerful states, incorporation of world religions, and interaction with culturally different peoples. |
| Where were restrictions on women more sharp: the classical civilization, or pastoral and agricultural societies? Why? | Classical civilizations. Pastoral and agricultural societies were beyond the reaches of uband centers and empires. |
| Who is Ban Zhao? | A chinese women wrier and cout official who observed that the ancients had 3 customs when a baby girl was born. |
| How were the lives of upper class women different from lower class women? | The upper class was more restricted. They were limited to he home and management of servants. The lower class had a frer but more burdensome life, because they had to work in fields, shop in the streets, or serve in homes of social supreiors. |
| During the Han dynasty, what ideology was elite thinking about gender issues linked to? | Emerging Confucianism |
| What was yin and yang? | Yang(masculine) was rlated to heaven, rulers, strength, rationality, and light. Yin(lower feminine principle) was associated with th earth, subjects, weaknss, emotion, and darkness. |
| What does the adage "men go out, women stay in" emphasize in China? | The public and political roles of men in contrast to th domestic and private life domain of women. |
| What are the "three obediences" in China? | Emphasized women's subordination first to hr father, then husband, then son. |
| What 3 customs took place in China when a baby girl was born and why? | She was placed below the bed to show weakness and to humble herself befor other. She was givn a broken piece of potery to show that her duty was to be industrious, andit was announced to the ancstors to show responsibility for continuing worship of them. |
| What could a few women in China, on occasion, exercise? | Political authority |
| Who did male officials in China blame for the collapse of a dynasty or natural disaster and why? | Women because of their influence in political affairs and for provoking antifemale hostility on mal officials. |
| How was the role of a women different within her husband's family than as a mother of sons? | Within th husband's family, a women was subordinate as a wife and daughter-in-law, but as a mother of sons, she had considerable honor for producing the next generation of male heirs to carry on the husband's lineage. |
| What changed in China following the collapse of the Han dynasty, and what did it cause? | Centralized government vanished because of political fragmentation and conflict, Confucianism wa discredited, whil Daoism and Buddhim attracted followers, and pastoral and nomadic people invaded small states. It caused loosening in the patriarchy. |
| What caused a weakening in patriarchy in China? | The cultural influence of the nomadic, the adoption of nomadic styles of dress, makeup, and music, and the reign of Empress Wu. |
| Who was Empress Wu, and what did she do? | The only women ever to rule China with the title of emperor. She elevated the position of women by critisizing the examination system and the arts, and also did things that made women seem more important. |
| What did the growing popularity of Daoism provide? | New images of the feminine and new roles for women. |
| Was the attitude towards women more negative and restrictive in Athens or Sparta? | Athens |
| In Athens, what limitations did women have in political life? | They had no role in the assembly, councils, or juries, and in legal matters, they had to represented by a guardian and were only referred to as someone's wife or mother, never by name. |
| In Athens, where were women expected to remain? What were the exceptions to this? | Inside the home, except to religious festivals or funeral. Also poorer women, courtesans, and prostitutes had to leave home to earn money, collect water, or shop. |
| When did Athenian women marry, and how old were their husbands? | They married during the mid-teens to men 10-15 years older than them. |
| What were the main functions of Athenian women? | To manage domestic affairs and produce sons who would become citizens. |
| What did sons and daughters learn in Athens? | Sons became literate, while daughters were limited to learning household tasks such as spinning and weaving. |
| What economic power did women in Athens have? What couldn't they do? | They could own personal property obtained through dowry, gifts, or inheritance. They could not buy or sell land, and could only negotiate contracts if the sum was valued at less than a bushel of barley. |
| Who was one of the exceptinos of the restricted life of Athenian women? | Aspasia, a professional, educated, high-class entertainer. |
| How did Sparta solve the problem of feeding a growing population? | By conquering their immediate neighbors and reducing them to a status of permanent servitude not far from slavery. |
| What were helots? | Conquered people in Sparta who lived like slaves. |
| What problem did the helots in Sparta represent, and why? | They represented a permanent threat of rebellion because they far outnumbered the free citizens of Sparta. |
| How did Sparta solve the threat of rebellion from the helots? | They began a militaristic regime, always ready for war, by removing boys from home at 7 and training them until they were 30. |
| What was the ideal Spartan male? | A warrior who was skilled in battle, able to endure hardship, and willing to die for his city. |
| How was the exercise of political power in Sparta different from Athens. | In Spart, it was exercised primarily by a small group of wealthy men. |
| What implications in Sparta offered women greater freedoms and fewer restrictions? | The militaristic and far-from-democratic system. |
| What was a Spartan women's main task? | Reproduction to bear warrior sons. |
| How did Spartan women strengthen their bodies for childbearing? | They took part in sporting events. |
| What was edcuation like for children in Sparta? | The state prescribed education for boys and girls. |
| How were women in Sparta different then those in Athens? | They were not secluded or segregated. |
| When did Spartan women marry, and how old were their husbands? | They married at 18 to a man of their own age. |
| What did marriage begin with in Spart and why? What options were their if this didn't work? | Began with a trial period to make sure the new couple could produce children. Divorce and remarriage was available if they couldn't. |
| What was the result of men in Sparta so often being away at war? | Women exercised more authority in the household. |
| What was the one thing Sparta was more restrictive then Athens on? | Homosexuality |
| What the ideal homosexual relationship, and when was it supposed to end? | Between an older man and a young adolescent boy, and was supposed to end when his beard began to grow. |
| Why was Sparta so clearly a patriarchy? | Women served as breeding machines for the military system and had no formal role in public life. |
| In Sparta, why was death in childbirth the same as a death in battle? | Both contributed to the defense of Sparta. |
| What did King Solomon and Buddha disagree on? | Solomon thought nothing ever changed, but Buddha thought that nothing coud remain without change. |
| What was new during this time period? | The Greek conquest of the Perisan Empire under Alexander the Great, A single political system in the Roman empire, Buddhism and Christianity, and the collapse of strong, powerful dynasties and empires. |
| What has continued up until this time period? | China's scholar-gentry class remained prominent, India's caste-based social structure, slavery, and patriarchy. |
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