GENETICS & EVOLUTION
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| What is characteristic of X-linked disorders? | males have dx but females are carriers
--> do not pass to offspring
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| heterochromatin | condensed DNA
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| euchromatin | loose DNA
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| Lyon's hypothesis | One of the 2 X's in a female will be inactivated as a Barr body
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| A person with 2 barr bodies has ____ X chromosomes | 3
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| Autosomal Dominant | -single copy
-do not skip generations
-equal numbers of affected females and males
-father to son transmission is observed
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| What is fitness defined by? | REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS
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| directional selection | selects for trait on one extreme
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| stabilizing selection | selects for moderate trait, against extremes
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| disruptive selection | selects for both extremes
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| Group selection | natural selection acting on the group, not the individual
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| Altruism | sacrifices fitness of individual for benefit of group
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| Evolutionary success | frequency of alleles of an individual increased
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| Species (3) | -be able to interbreed
-be able to produce fertile, viable offspring
-does this naturally
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| Are a horse and donkey same species? | NO --> mule offspring is sterile
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| Speciation | formation of a new species
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| polymorphism | different forms of alleles / traits
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| adaptation | genetic change in a population caused by natural selection
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| specialization | adaptation of traits to better fill a niche
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| Inbreeding increases frequency of __ and decreases ___. | homozygotes / heterozygotes
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| Why is inbreeding so bad? | increases frequency of homozy. recessive detrimental alleles
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| Bottleneck effect | severe reduction in population size (i.e. natural disaster)
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| genetic drift and when does the effect increase? | random change in allele frequencies
--> genetic drift increases as population size decreases
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| T / F: Bottlenecks increase the effect of genetic drift? | TRUE
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| divergent evolution | same lineage, evolving apart to be more different
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| Divergent evolution produces ___ structures. | homologous
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| homologous structures | structures that are embryologically similar but have different functions
(i.e. whale flipper and human arm)
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| parallel evolution | same lineage, evolving separately but using similar mechanisms
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| convergent evolution | genetically unrelated species acquire same biological trait
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| analogous structures | structures that do the same job but have different origins
(i.e. bird wings and bee wings)
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| coevolution | two species reciprocally affect each other's evolution (prey and predator)
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| parasitism | one benefits, other harmed
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| commensalism | one benefits, other unaffected
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| mutualism | both species benefit
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| ontogeny vs. phylogeny | -development through life of an organism
-development through history of lineages as they change through time
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| Ontogeny Recapitulates Phylogeny Theory | This phrase suggests that an organism’s development will take it through each of the adult stages of its evolutionary history, or its phylogeny
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| Molecular Clock Theory | -measure of evolutionary change over time at molecular level
-specific DNA seq / px spontaneously mutate at constant rates
-that rate can be used to estimate how long ago 2 organisms diverged from common ancestor
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| What are neutral mutation? | random genetic drift mutations that are not acted on by natural selection
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| What is Oparin and Haldane's theory on origin of life? | organic molecules created by atmospheric gases zapped by lightening
--> fall into ocean to make primordial soup (C,H,N,O)
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| What experiment confirmed origin of life theory? | Urey-Miller
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| RNA World Hypothesis | RNA is precursor to current life because RNA can store genetic info and catalyze chemical rxns
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| protocells | aggregates of RNA and px inside lipid envelopes
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| How did eukaryotes evolve? | -endosymbiosis --> big cx engulfed a smaller cx
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| What are 2 types of endosymbiosis? | -heterotrophs engulf mito
-autotrophs engulf chloroplasts
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| How did prokaryotes evolve? stages | anaerobic heterotrophs --> anaerobic autotrophs --> aerobics
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| What is a chordate? | one of the phylums in the kingdom Animalia
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| What are features of a chordate? | notochord, gill slits in embryo (pharyngeal pouches, branchial arches), dorsal nerve cord
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| What is a vertebrate vs. chordate? | vertebrates are a subphylum of chordates
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| Chordates vs. vertebrates | -all chordates have a notochord, dorsally located nerve
-all vertebrates have a backbone
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| Are all vertebrates chordates? Are all chordates vertebrates? | YES / NO
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| Notochord | rigid rod present at some stage of development in all chordates
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| p + q = | 1
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| Hardy Weinberg equation | p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1
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| 5 assumptions of Hardy-Weinberg | -large population (no genetic drift)
-no mutation
-no migration
-random mating (no sexual selection)
-all genes are equally successful at reproducing
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| What is a back-cross? | mating btwn offspring and parent
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| What is a test-cross? | Situation when you have a dominant phenotype (Aa or AA)
--> cross with homozygous recessive aa
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| locus | location of a gene on a chromosome
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| allele | variant of a gene
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| Where do all alleles of the same gene exist? | same locus
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| How many alleles does each gene hold? | 2 - one from mom, one from dad
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| leakage | gene flow from one species to another
--> concern for antibiotic resistance
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| gene pool | all of the alleles in a population
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| penetrance | frequency genotype will result in phenotype (whether you have it or not)
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| expressivity | to what degree a penetrant gene is expressed
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| When does tetrad formation occur? | meiosis I
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| In meiosis, are the daughter cells identical to parent cell? | NO
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| What does meiosis produce? | haploid (n) daughter cells
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| the law of _______( segregation or independent assortment) is dependent on the random arrangement of homologous chromosomes at the metaphase plate during Meiosis I. | independent assortment
--> sometimes mom's chromo is on left, sometimes it's on rightW
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| The law of_____ ( segregation or independent assortment) is dependent on the separation of members of homologous pairs. | segregation
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| What is the site of crossing-over called? When does chiasma occur? | chiasma / tetrad formation
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| What lines up during meiosis I? Mitosis? | homologous chromosomes / sister chromatids
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| How many recombinants does a single crossover create? | 2 / 4
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| Where are all of the sex-linked alleles located? | x chromosome
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| cytoplasmic inheritance | inheritance of things other than genomic DNA
--> all cellular organelles such as mito are inherited from mother
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| mitochondria inheritance is from? | mother
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| inversion mutation | stretch of DNA breaks off and reattaches in opposite orientation
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| addition / insertion mutation | extra base is added to DNA sequence
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| What to addition / deletion mutations create? | frameshift mutation
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| translocation mutation | stretch of DNA breaks off and reattaches somewhere else
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| inborn errors of metabolism | genetic dx resulting in faulty metabolism
--> PKA where ppl can't metabolize Phe
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| Are all mutagens carcinogens? Are all carcinogens mutagens? | NO / MOSTLY YES
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| some cancer can be mitogens, what is a mitogen? | increase mitosis
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| carcinogen vs. mutagen | -mutagen = causes mutation
-carcinogen = causes mutation that causes cancer
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| vestigial structures | remnants of organs that have lost ancestral fxns
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| Do species, individuals, or populations evolve? | populations
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| Does chordate mean having a backbone? | NO --> bilateral symmetry
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| All vertebrates belong to what phylum? | chordata
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| r-selection | produce large number of offspring that mature rapidly with littler or no parental care
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| k-selection | small brood size with slow maturing offspring and strong parental care
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| adaptive radiation | single ancestral species gives rise to a number of different species
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| What carries out long-term evolutionary changes? | natural selection
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| coacervates | colloidal droplets made of polypeptides, nucleic acids, polysaccharides
--> first cx thought to evolved from this cx type
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| prezygotic isolating mechanisms vs. postzygotic | -prevent zygote formation completely
-offspring are inviable
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| inclusive fitness | number of alleles organism passes on to next generation
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| What ultimately creates evolution? | changing gene frequency
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| How to calculate the number of possible gametes for AaBbCc? | 2^n (n =3)
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| Why does inbreeding reduce fitness? | increase incidence of expression of deleterious recessive traits
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| What organisms fall under eukaryotes? | animls, plants, fungi, protozoans
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| Which organisms fall under prokaryotes? | bacteria (kingdom monera)
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| What are simplest eukaryotes? | protists
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| Some characteristics of x-linked recessive dx? | -more common in males
-skip generations
-NO father-son transmission
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| What does the Hardy-weinberg equilibrium oppose? | intro of new alleles into a population
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| Gram positive appear ___ after staining. Gram negative appear ____. | blue / pink
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| Where do sperm undergo maturation? What is that analogous to in a female? | epididymis / ovary
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| Characteristics of yeast cells | membrane-bound organelles, chitin wall
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| What is the smallest and achiral a.a.? | glycine
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| What is the imino acid? | proline --> helix breaker
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| What a.a. can form disulfide bonds? | cysteine
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| Background extinction vs. mass extinction | -background = steady loss
-mass = abrupt loss
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| Founder effect | entire population gene pool is based on genes of individuals that founded population
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| What is estrogen synthesized from? | testosterone
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| Generation time | avg. amount of time btwn appearances of 2 successive generations (i.e. parent and offspring)
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| What does LH bind to in males? | leydig cells --> stimulate testosterone release --> FSH
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| all bacteria require ____ for growth and reproduction | carbon
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| autotrophic bacteria | bacteria that get carbon from CO2
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| heterotrophic bacteria | bacteria that derive carbon from organic nutrients like sugar
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| cyanobacteria | use sunlight to produce sugars from CO2
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| What eukaryotic organelles are derived from endosymbiotic bacteria? | mito and chloroplasts
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| Rank severity of damage: nonsense, silent, missense | nonsense > missense > silent
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| Where is rRNA produced? | nucleolus
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| What is the largest organelle in the cell? | nucleus
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| How many sets of tumor suppressor genes does each person have? | 1
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| Human diet consist mostly of what type of sugar? | sucrose = glucose + fructose
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| Do erythrocytes have organelles? | NO
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| Where do erythrocytes get ATP? | cytoplasm and cx membrane supplies erythrocytes
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| population | group of interbreeding individuals of same species isolated from similar groups of same species
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| fundamental niche | potential conditions under which an organism can survive
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| realized niche | conditions individuals actually use to survive
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| Are analogous structure evolutionary related? | NO
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| Type A blood makes antibodies against? | Type B blood
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| When a population undergoes bottleneck, what is genotype of population? | homozygous
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| High degree of phenotypic plasticity? | environmental factors influence phenotype
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