Ms. Ropski Lab Practical on Respiratory, Excretion and Urinary, and Reproduction
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| Pulmonary Ventilation | -aka Breathing
-2 parts: inspiration (air is taken into lungs) & Expiration (air passes out of lungs)
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| Boyle's Law | -pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume
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| Spirometry | -technique for measuring lung volumes and capacities
-A person's size, gender, and physical condition produce variations in respiratory volumes.
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| Tidal Volume (TV) | amount of air inhaled or exhaled with each breath under resting condtition
-Clinical range: 500 mL for females and males
-To conduct: inhale and exhale normally
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| Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) | the maximum amount of air that can be forcefully inhaled after a normal tidal volume inhalation
-clinical: 900 to 1900 mL for females and 2300 to 3300 mL for males
-IRV = VC - TV - ERV
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| Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) | the maximum amount of air that can be forcefully exhaled after a normal tidal volume exhalation
-Clinical: 600-800 mL for females and 1000-1200 mL for males
-to conduct exhale normally then forcibly exhale into spirometer (don't inhale)
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| Vital Capacity (VC) | the maximum amount of air that can be exhaled after a maximal inhalation
-Clinical: 2900-3100 mL females and 4500-4800 mL males
-to conduct: breathe in and out normally 2 or 3 times then forcibly inhale and exhale all of the air in your body
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| Spirometer | -measures repiratory volumes
-2 types:
-1) dry or handheld wheel
-2) wet or Phipps and Bird spirometer
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| BTPS Factor | -Body, Temp, atmospheric pressure, and water saturation
-is 1.1
-used because the pressure and temp inside the spirometer are influenced by room temp and differ from those in the body.
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| Minute Respiratory Volume(MRV) | volume of air moved into respiratory passageways in one minute
MRV= TV x respirations/min
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| Residual Volume (RV) | The amount of air remaining in the lungs after a mix expiratory effort.
-cannot be measured
-clinical: 1100mL Females 1200mL males
- RV = VC x factor
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| Pseudostratified Cilliated Columnar Epithelium | -lines the lumen of the larynx, trachea and upper respiratory tract.
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| Simple Squamous Epithelium | -in aveoli
-allows for gas exchange
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| Hyaline Cartilage | -makes up the 9 cartilages that make up the larynx and the tracheal rings
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| Elastic Cartilage | located in the epiglottis
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| Spirometer | -measures repiratory volumes
-2 types:
-1) dry or handheld wheel
-2) wet or Phipps and Bird spirometer
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| BTPS Factor | -Body, Temp, atmospheric pressure, and water saturation
-is 1.1
-used because the pressure and temp inside the spirometer are influenced by room temp and differ from those in the body.
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| Minute Respiratory Volume(MRV) | volume of air moved into respiratory passageways in one minute
MRV= TV x respirations/min
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| Residual Volume (RV) | The amount of air remaining in the lungs after a mix expiratory effort.
-cannot be measured
-clinical: 1100mL Females 1200mL males
- RV = VC x factor
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| Pseudostratified Cilliated Columnar Epithelium | -lines the lumen of the larynx, trachea and upper respiratory tract.
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| Simple Squamous Epithelium | -in aveoli
-allows for gas exchange
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| Hyaline Cartilage | -makes up the 9 cartilages that make up the larynx and the tracheal rings
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| Elastic Cartilage | located in the epiglottis
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| What is the primary function of the kidney? | -to regulate the composition of the plasma and body tissue fluid.
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| What do the kidneys regulate? | 1-the volume of blood plasma by adjusting the amount of water excreted in uring
2- the concentration of electrolytes
3-the concentration of nitrogenout metabolic waste products in plasma
4-pH of plasma
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| Urine | -waste product of our body
-modified filtrate of the plasma
-25-35 grams of urea excreted in a 24-hour period
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| What are the 3 basic processes that make urine? | -Glomerular flitration
-Tubular reabsorption
-tubular secretion
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| What did we use in all of the plasma tests | -bovine serum (cow plasma)
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| Urinalysis | observing the physicalcharacteristics of a urine sample and testing for the presence of certain organic and inorganic substances
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| Color of urine | Normal urine varies from pale yellow to dark amber depending on the presence of urochromes
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| Urochromes | pigments produced during the decomp of hemoglobin
hemoglogin->Hematin->Bilirubin->urochomogen->urochrome
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| How does diet affect urine? | Pigments in certain foods may be excreted in urine and aler the color.
ex: carots cause urine to be more ellow due to carotene, beets cause reddening, rhubarb causes urine to be brown
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| How does the concentration affect urine? | The more concentrated to urine, the darker its color. Very concentrated urine may be dark yellow or brown. Very dilute uring may have only a tint of yellow.
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| How do medications affect urine? | -some medications (like certain vitamins) may also affect the color of urine
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| What transparency should urine and plasma be? | Urine should be clear, plasma should be slightly cloudy
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| Odor of urine | -varies with dietary intake
-some foold such as asparagus and cabbage may give urine a strong odor
-offensive odor sometimes caused by exretion of certain drugs
-odor comes from ammonium carbonate caused by bacterial decomp of urea
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| pH of urine | -can be b/w 4.8-8.0, but most is around 6.0
-meats make it more acidic (5.0-6.0, vegetables make it more basic (7.0-8.0)
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| What inorganic ions did we test for? | -ammonium -Calcium -Bicarbonate - Chloride
-Phosphate -Sulfate
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| Test for ammonium ion | -make sure urine is alkaline
-put a piece of litmus paper in the top of the tube
-boil it for 5 minutes
-if litmus paper turnns blue, then ammonium ion is present
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| Test for Calcium Ion | -if cloudy precipitate appears, positive for calcium
-2% oxalic acid
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| Test for bicarbonate | -slowly drop acid into tube, if gas bubbles appear, it's positive
10% hydrochloric acid
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| Test for Chloride Ion | -Drop 2% silver nitrate, if thick curd;like preipitate, its high concentration
-if thin, milky precipitate, low conctentration
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| Test for Phosphate Ion | -add drops of ferric chloride
-precipitate=positive
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| Test for Sulfate Ion | -add 2% barium chloride
-cloudy precipitate at top = positive
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| Test for albumin | -make sure urine is alkaline
-boil for 5 minutes, precipitate could occur (positive)
-add HCL. if preicpitate is still there, protein is present in urine (bad!!)
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| Test for glucose | -Benedicts
-yeast respiration: phenol red
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| What did plasma test positive for? | -Ammonium
-Bicarbonate
-Chloride
-Phosphate
-Albumin
-Yeast Respiration
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| What did plasma test negative for? | -Calcium and Sulfate
-Urea
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| Chemical Breakdown reaction of Urea | -called: Urease
H4CN2O + H2O --> CO2 + 2 NH3
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| Asexual Reproduction | no fusion of a sperm and a secondary oocyte and usually requires mitosis followed by cytokinesis
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| Sexual Reproduction | -More complicated with meiosis required to form gametes (sperm and secondary oocyte), the specialized haploid cells that must fuse to form a dipoid zygote.
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| Binary Fission | -method of asexual repro
-a parent cell mitotically divides into two cells of equal size
-occurs in protozoas and in many invertebrates like sea anemones
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| Budding | -method of asexual repro
- a new individual grows out from the body of the parent organism and either splits from the parent or stays attched to form large colonie
-yeast, cnidarians like Hydra, flatworms
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| Fragmentation | -method of asexual repro
-the body breaks into several pieces and each piece develops into a new individual.
-fould in sponges, cnidarians, and tunicates
-usually accompanied by regeneration
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| Regeneration | -Method of sexual repro
-an injury occurs and 2 or more individuals are formed as a result
-ex: echinoderms
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| Apomixis | -asexual repro that only occurs in plants
-when new plants are formed without pollination
-occurs in strawberries and mosses
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| Sporulation | -happens in plants
-when haploid spores develop into mature organisms without fusion of gametes
-occurs in all land plants that exhibit alternation of generations
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| Vegetative Reproduction | -occurs in plants, asexual repro
-where cuttings from shoots or stems of mature plants are physically separated from the parent and placed in water or moist soil where they grow
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| Vegetative Propagation | -asexual, occurs in plants
-where commercial crops are not grown from seed becuase of difficulties with that process and the lack of uniformity
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| Gametes | Specialized cells that Transfer complete sets of genes
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| Gametosgenesis | The production of reproductive haploid cells by meiosis and occurs in each gender (spermogensis in males and oogenesis in females_
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| Spermatogensis | -continuous process that occurs in the sertoli cells located in the seminiferous tubules of the testes.
-FSH from the anterior pituitary causes each mitotic division to form different types of spermatogonia
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| Steps of Spermatogenesis | A1 spermatogonium (diploid) -> A2-> A3-> A4 -> Intermediate spermatogonium-> B spermatogonium (diploid)-> Primary spermatocyte-> Meiosis 1-> Secondary spermatocyte(haploid)-> Meiosis II -> Spermatids (haploid)-> Spermatozoa (haploid)
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| Facts about sperms! | -sperm maturation takes 64-69 days
-1000 permatids produced per heartbeat per testicle
-average ejaculate contains around 200-400 million sperm
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| 3 anatomical regions of sperm | Head or nucleus-> contains the haploid DNA
Midpiece of the tail-> consists of the centriole wrapped tightly with mitochondria that provide energy; this is termed spiral mitochondria
Tail-> have proteins that make it motile
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| Oogenesis | not continuous
-occurs in the follicles in the cortex of the ovary
-happens b/w the 2nd and 7th month of embryotic development
-produces 7 million oogonia, but only 2 million enter meiosis and enlarge to form primary oocytespuberty=40,000 oocytes remai
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| Steps of oogenesis | 1.FSH-> maturation of 5 to 12 follicles
2.Follicles Release estrogen
3.Once it matures, it's called a Graafian follicle
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| Ovulation | -the secondary oocyte is released from the rupturing Graafian follicle. At this point the secondary oocyte is ferilizable within 12 to 24 hours
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| Gametogenesis | Where haploid gametes are formed by the potential parents
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| Fertilization | where the gametes fuse to form the diploid zygote which is thus activated to perform metabolic reactions and start dividing
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| Parthenogenesis | -egg develops by itself
Caused by: temp differences, increase in Ca ions inside plasma membrane, gamete can be diploid and fertilization is not neede
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| Cleavage | rapid cell division with little or no protein synthesis; therefore, there is no increase in size of the egg mass.
-process is callllled blastulation
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| Bastula | -the end result of cleavage
-a hollow ball of thousands of cells
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| Gastrulation | -differentiated cells move appropriate location and produce an embryo with three layers of cells
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| Organogenesis | -rudimentary formation of various organs in the embryo
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| Neuralation | -the formation of the neural tube that is the basis for the nervous system
-followed by further differentiation and rapid growth of the embryo
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| Oviparous | -lay eggs outside that female's body where the young will hatch
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| Viviparous | --organisms give birth to live young that have been nourished in the uterus by blood via the placenta
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| Ovoviviparous | -organisms incorporate both mechanisms
-reain fertilized eggs in the oviduct where the embryos are nourished by egg yolk, after hatching within the uterus the young are then delivered alive
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| 4 types of eggs found in Kindgom Animalia: | mammals=isolecithal- small amt of yolk that is evenly dist thru egg
Amphibians=mesolecithal egg- mod amt of ylk localized in one place
Birds and reptile=tolelecithal-large amt. yolk wich is the swollen egg cell
Insects-centrolecithal- lg central yolk
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| The secondary Oocyte | -in amphibians
-consists of 2 portions:
-animal hemisphere or pole: dark grey or brown since it contains melanin granules
=Vegetal Hemisphere or vegetal pole: lacks melanin granules, yolk-filled portion is yellow
-released into water
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| Zygote | -the one cell stage boefore division starts
-heavier portion (vegetal pole) faces down
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| Grey Cresent | -and indication fertilization has occured
-forms on the side opposite to sperm penetration bc there is a pinching of the plasma membrane at the penetration site and this exposes the lighter grey cells on the other side
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| Early Cleavage | -marked by the appearance of a groove on the animal pole of the zygote
-cleavage furrow extends toward the opposite side of zygote; two cells now
-4 cell stage, cleavage furrow at right angles of first
3rd cleavage (horizontal), perpindicular to 1st 2
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| Morula | -what is formed at the 32-cell stage
-solid ball
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| Blastocoel | -as the cells continue to divide, this is the fluid-filled space
-bc of the localized yolk in one hemisphere in frogs, the unequal division during cleavage results in polarity w the blastocoel nearer the animal pole
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| Archenteron | As the gastrocoel enlarges inward, the cells surrounding it organize as endoderm. At this point the cavity is called this and eventually becomes the primitive gut.
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| Gastrocoel | The cells of the blastopore will move away from the blastopore and form this cavity
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| Endoderm | this germ layer is made of those cells that first moved inward
made from 2 parts of the blastula: marginal and vegetal
marginal endoderm= foregut
vegetal endoderm lies on the floor of the archenteron=midgut
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| What does the endoderm turn into? | -inner layer
-digestive tract
-glands including the thymus, thyroid, parathyroid
-epithelia linig of digestive system
-respiratory system
-portions of the urogenital system
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| Mesoderm | -middle layer
-cells that invaginate at the ventral and lateral margins of the blastopore
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| What does the mesoderm turn into? | -skeletal
-muscular
-urogenital
-cardiovascular
-lymphatic
-peritoneum
-the dermis of the integument
-notochord
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| Ectoderm | -outermost layer
-arises from the spreading and thinning of the remaining exterior animal pole cells that enclose the embryo
two types: neural ectoderm and cutaneous ectoderm
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| Neural Ectoderm | will become the brain and spinal cord of the nervous system
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| Cutaneous Ectoderm | -will make epidermal structures the skin and its derivatives (hair and follicles, nails, claws)
-sensory receptors in the epidermis, sweat glands, and the cornea of and lens of the eye
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| The end of gastrulation is marked by.. | complete closuer of the blastopore
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| Neural plate | -this is where the neural ectoderm on the dorsal side of the embryo begins to thicked and form this
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| Neural Groove | -the central area of the neural plate gradually becomes depressed to form this while the lateral edges of the plate thicken to form the neural ford
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| Notochord | derived from dorsal mesoderm and is a flexible rod that occurs during development of chordates
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| Somites | -the structures that are arranged serially on both sides of the notochord
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