Blood
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| The circulatory system is comprised of the | cardiovascular and lymphatic system
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| cardiovascular system includes the | heart, blood vessels, and blood
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| the lymphatic system consists of | lyphatic vessels and lymph
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| the main function of the cardiovascular system is to | transport cells and dissolved materials including nutrients, wastes, and respiratory gases throughout the body
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| blood is a | specialized fluid connective tissue
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| blood distributes | nutrients, oxygen, and hormones to every cell in the body
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| blood delivers | metabolic wastes to the kidneys for excretion
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| blood transports | immunological cells that provide defense to peripheral tissues, from pathogens to toxins
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| blood stablizes the | pH and electrolyte composition of interstitial fluid
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| blood's..restricts the loss of | clotting reaction...fluid through damaged vessels or tissue injury
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| blood also stabilizes the | body temp by absorbing and redistributing heat
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| the two primary components of blood | plasma and formed elements
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| plasma is the liquid | matrix of blood, which is only slightly denser than water
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| plasma contains | dissolved proteins instead of the collagen, elastic, and reticular fibers found in typicaL loose CTs
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| formed elements are | blood cells and fragments suspended in the plasma
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| formed elements include | red blood cells (erythrocytes) white blood cells (leukocytes) and platelets (thrombocytes)
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| whole blood is a | mixture of both the plasma and the formed elements
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| for clinical purposes, the compnonents of whole blood may be | seperated or fractioned
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| whole blood is...which are characteristics that determine the | sticky, cohesive, and resistant to flow...viscosity of a solution
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| how many liters of whole blood in the cardiovascular system are in adult males | 5-6 liters
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| how many liters of whole blood are in the cardiovascular system in adult females | 4-5 liters
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| whole blood has an alkaline range of | 7.35-7.45
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| hypovolemic | low blood volume
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| normovolemic | normal blood volume
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| hypervolemic | high blood volume
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| plasma accounts for about | 55% of blood volume
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| plasma contains | 92% water
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| differences between plasma and interstitial fluid involve the | concentration of dissolved gases and proteins
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| dissolved oxygen concentration in plasma is...dissolved carbon dioxide concentration in interstitial fluid is... | higher...higher in interstitial fluid
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| significant numbers of | dissolved proteins in plasma
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| most plasma proteins are..., preventing... | large and globular...them from crossing the capillary walls
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| three classes of plasma proteins include | albumins, globulins, fibrinogens
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| albumins constitute | 60% of the plasma proteins
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| albumins are the...of the major plasma proteins | smallest
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| albumins are major contributors to the | osmotic pressure of the plasma
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| albumins play and important role in the | transportof fatty acids, steriod hormones, and other substances
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| globulins constitute | 35% of the plasma proteins
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| two types of globulins are | immunoglobulins and transport globulins
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| immunoglobulins also called...attack | antibodies...foreign proteins and pathogens
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| transport globulins bind | small ions, hormones, and other compounds such as insoluble compounds and compounds to be excreted at the kidneys
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| fibrinogens account for | 4% of the plasma proteins
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| fibrinogens are the | largest of the plasma proteins
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| fibrinogens are essential for the | clotting reaction
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| fibrinogen molecules interact with | each other to form the large, insoluble strands of fibrin, under normal conditions
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| fibrin fibers provide the | basic framework for a blood clot
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| serum is the | fluid that remains if fibrinogen is removed from plasma
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| when albumins or globulins attach to..they form... | lipids that are not water-soluble...lipoproteins
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| lipoproteins are | protein-lipid combinations that readily dissolve in plasma, thus enable insoluble lipids to be delivered to peripheral tissues
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| the primary source of plasma proteins is the...which... | liver...synthesizes and releases more than 90% of such proteins
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| the major cellular components of blood are | erythrocytes and leukocytes
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| the non-cellular formed elements of blood are the | platelets which function in the clotting reaction
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| erythrocytes (RBC) account for slightly less than | 50% of the total blood volume
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| hematocrit value indicates the | percentage of whole blood contributed by formed elements
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| the hematocrit value closely approximates the | volume of RBCs because blood has a content ratio of 1000 RBCs for each WBC
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| erythrocytes are...whose unusual shape provides | anucleate, biconcave discs...strength and flexibility
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| the biconcave disc shape also provides | a disproportionately large surface area for a cell its size, which permits rapid diffusion between the RBC cytoplasm and surrounding plasma
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| there are NO ...in erythrocytes | mitochondria or ribosomes
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| erythrocytes have red color due to | presence of hemoglobin molecules
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| ciculation lifespan of erythrocytes | 120 days
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| damaged or dead RBCs are | recycled by phagocytes
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| rouleaux are the stacks formed by the | RBCs due to their biconcave shape, allowing them to pass easily through small vessels
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| hemoglobin molecules account for | more than 95% of the proteins of RBCs
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| hemoglobin confers RBCs with the ablitity to | transport oxygen and carbon dioxide
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| hemoglobin contains a | globular protein formed from four subunits
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| each subunit contains a | single molecule of HEME which holds an iron ion that can freely interact with an oxygen molecule
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| RBCs transport | dissolved o2 from the lungs to the tissues
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| respiratory gas (o2) exchange occurs at the | lungs
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| co2 diffuses out of the | blood and o2 diffuses into the blood
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| transport co2 from the | tissues to the lungs
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| respiratory gas (co2) exchange in the | peripheral tissues
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| o2 diffuses out of the...and co2 diffues into the... | blood...blood
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| blood types are determined by the | presence or absence of specific components called surface antigens in the plasmalemmae of RBCs
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| three surface antigens of particular importance are assigned as A, B, and D (Rh) | type A blood, type B blood, Type O blood
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| type A blood has | surface antigen A
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| type B blood has | surface antigen B
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| type O blood has | neither surface antigen
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| Rh + blood has | Rh surface antigen (D surface antigen)
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| Rh - blood does not have | Rh surface antigen
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| agglutinins are | antibodies that are specific to these surface antigens
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| during blood transfusion...occurs when... | cross-reaction...antibodies within a person's plasma react with RBCs bearing foreign surface antigens
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| initially, agglutination occurs in which the | RBCs clump together
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| the RBCs may also | hemolyze or rupture during cross reaction
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| compatibility of the blood types of the donor and the recipient avoids | cross reaction
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| leukocytes are | scattered throughout the peripheral tissues
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| WBCs represent only a | small fraction of their total population
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| leukocytes help | defend the body against pathogens
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| WBCs remove | toxins, wastes, abnormal or damaged cells
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| WBCs contain | nuclei of characteristic sizes and shapes
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| WBCs are as | large or larger than erythrocytes
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| two classes of leukocytes | granular leukocytes and agranular leukocytes
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| granular leukocytes have | large granular inclusions in their cytoplasm
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| agranular leukocytes do not have | visible cytoplasmic granules
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| differential count of the WBC population is provided by | a stained blood smear
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| typical microliter of blood contains | 6000-9000 WBCs
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| leukopenia indicates | inadequate numbers of leukocytes
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| leukocytosis refers to | excessive numbers of leukocytes
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| the suffixes -penia and -osis are used to | indicate low or high numbers of specific types of WBCs
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| diapedesis is the ability to | move through vessel walls
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| WBCs can migrate | across the endothelial lining of a capillary by squeezing between adjacent endothelial cells
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| chemotaxis is the attraction to | specific chemical stimuli
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| WBCs are attracted to the | chemical signs of inflammation or infection in the adjacent interstitial fluids, thereby drawing them to invading pathogens, damaged tissues, and other WBCs that are already in the damaged tissues
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| three types of granular leukocytes | neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
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| neutrophils account for | 50-70% of the circulating WBCs
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| neutrophil's cytoplasm is packed with | pale, neutral-staning granules that contain lysosomal enzymes and bactericidal compounds
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| mature neutrophils have a diameter of | 12-15 um, making them nearly twice the size of a RBC
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| a neutrophil contains a very | dense, controted nucleus
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| polymorphonuclear leukocytes are neutrophils whose nuclei have been | condensed into a series of lobes, giving them the apperance of beads on a string
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| neutrophils are highly | mobile phagocytes which specialize in attacking and digesting bacteria
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| neutrophils have a | short life span of about 12 hours
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| neutrophils are usually the | first of the WBCs to arrive at an injury site
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| eosinophils represent | 2-4% of the circulating WBCs
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| eosinophils have | cytoplasmic granules that stain with eosin
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| eosinophils are similar in size to | neutrophils
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| eosinophils have deep | red granules in their cytoplasm
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| the eosinophils' hallmark characteristic is the | bilobed nucleus
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| eosinophils are | phagocytic cells, which are attracted to foreign compounds that have reacted with circulating antibodies
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| the presence of eosinophils increase dramatically during an | allergic reaction or a parasitic infection
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| eosinophils are also attracted to | damaged tissues, where they release enzymes that reduce inflammation and control its spread to adjacent tissues
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| basophils account for less than | 1% of circulating WBCs
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| basophils have numerous | cytoplasmic granules that stain with basic dyes
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| basophils migrate to | injury sites and cross the capillary endothelium to accumulate within the damaged tissues where they discharge their granules into interstitial fluids
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| basophil's granules contain | histamine and heparin
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| histamines are compounds that | dilate blood vessels
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| heparin are compounds that | prevents blood from clotting
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| when basophil's granules are released, they | increase the capillary and venule permeability resulting in increased inflammation response at the injury site
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| basophils also release chemicals that | stimulate mast cells and attract other basophils and other WBCs to the inujured area
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| two types of agranular leukocytes | monocytes and lymphocytes
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| monocytes represent | 2-8% of the WBC population
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| monocytes are the | largest of the WBCs (16-20 um in diameter)
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| monocytes are about | 2-3x the diameter of a typical RBC
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| monocytes are almost | spherical in shape
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| monocytes are relatively easy to identify by their | size and shape of nucleus which is typically a large oval or kidney bean shaped nucleus
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| monocytes become | free macrophages when they leave the bloodstream and enter peripheral tissues
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| during the monocytes phagocytic action, they release | chemicals that attract and stimulate other monocytes and other phagocytic cells
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| lymphocytes account for | 20-30% of the WBC populations
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| lymphocytes typically appears as having very little | cytoplasm that forms a thin halo around a relatively large, round purple-staining nucleus
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| lymphocytes are usually | slightly larger than RBCs
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| lymphocytes are the | primary cells of the lymphoid system
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| lymphocytes are responsible for | specific immunity
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| the lymphoid system is a network of | special vessels and organs that are distinct from, but connected to those of the cardiovascular system
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| specific immunity is the body's ability to | mount a counterattack against invading pathogens or foreign proteins on an individual basis
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| three groups of lymphocytes include | t cells, b cells, and NK cells
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| t cells enter | peripheral tissues and attack foreign cells directly
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| b cells differentiate into | plasmocytes that secrete antibodies that attack foreign cells or proteins in distant portion of the body
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| NK cells or...are cells that are responsible for... | natural killer cells...immune surveillance
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| immune surveillance is a process which | destroys abnormal tissue cells
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| t cells and b cells cannot be | distinguished with the light microscope
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| platelets are | flattened, membrane-enclosed packets of cytoplasm which appear round when viewed from above and appear spindle-shaped when viewed in section
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| platelets are sometimes referred to as | thromobocytes although platelets technically are not cells
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| megakaryoctyes are | enormous cells that shed their cytoplasm in membrane-enclosed packets which are released into the blood circulation
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| a mature megakaryocyte produces around | 4000 platelets
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| platelets are | continually replaced
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| circulation life span for megakaryocytes of | 10-12 days
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| an average of...plateltes per 1 ul of blood | 350,000
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| thrombocytopenia is an | abnormally low platelet count which indicates excessive platelet destruction or inadequate platelet production
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| thrombocytosis is an | excessive platelet count which indicates accelerated platelet formation in response to infection, inflammation or cancer
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| hemostatis is a process that | prevents the loss of blood through the walls of damaged vessels
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| platelets are one of the components in a | vascular clotting system that also includes plasma proteins and the cells and tissues of the circulatory system
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| platelets transport | chemicals that are important to the clotting reaction
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| platelets release | enzymes and other factors to initate and control the clotting process
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| platelets form a | temporary patch in the walls of damaged blood vessels
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| platelets form a platelet... | plug by clumping together at the injury site, thereby reducing the rate of blood loss while clotting occurs
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| after clot formation has occured, there is...which reduces the... | active contraction...size of the break in the vessel wall
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| platelets contain | filaments of actin and myosin that allow them to produce contractions
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| hemopoiesis is the process of | blood cell formation
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| embryonic blood cells differentiate into | stem cells that produce blood cells by their divisions
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| the bone marrow becomes the | primary site of blood cell formation in adults
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| stem cells, called....or...divide to give... | pluripotential stem cells...hemocytoblasts...rise to all the blood cells
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| pluripotential stem cells give risse to two | multipotential stem cell lines (multipotential myeloid stem cells and multipotential lympoid stem cells)
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| multipotential myeloid stem cells divide to form | five different types of stem cell lines, each with relatively restricted functions
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| 2 of the stem cell lines (myeloid stem cells) produce | RBCs and megakaryocytes
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| the other 3 stem cell lines (myeloid stem cells) give rise to the | various forms of WBCs
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| multipotential lymphoid stem cells divide to form | two different types of stem cell lines, each wih relatively restricted functions as well
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| one stem cell line (lympoid stem cells) ultimately forms | plasmocytes
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| the other stem cell line (lymphoid stem cells) forms | t cells
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| erythropoiesis is the formation of | erythrocytes or RBCs
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| erythropoiesis occurs | primarily within the red bone marrow in adults
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| normal erythropoiesis in myeloid tissues requires | adequate supplies of amino acids, iron, and vitamen B, a vitamin obtain from dairy products and meat
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| erythropoiesis stimulating hormone is a hormone that regulates | erythropoiesis
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| EPO is produced and secreted under | hypoxic conditions, mainly in the kidneys
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| EPO stimulates | increased rates of cell division in erythroblasts and in the stem cells that produce erythroblasts
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| EPO increases the | rate of RBC maturation mainly by accelerating the rate of hemoglobin synthesis
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| erythroblasts are very | immature RBCs that are actively synthesizing hemoglobin
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| reticulocytes are | mature RBCs that have just shed their nuclei
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| reticulocytes are the...in maturation process | last step
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| reticulocytes enter the | blood circulation
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| reticulocytes gradually develop the apperance of | mature erythrocytes (RBCs)
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| leukopoiesis is the production of | leukocytes or WBCs
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| stem cells for the production of WBCs...in the | originate...bone marrow
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| granulocytes... their development in the | complete...bone marrow
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| monocytes...their differentation in the... | begin..bone marrow
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| monocytes go from bone marrow to the | blood circulation
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| monocytes finally complete their development when they become | free macrophages in peripheral tissues
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| lymphopoiesis is the production of | lymphocytes
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| lymphocyte's stem cells originate in the bone marrow also, but many of them | subsequently migrate to the thymus
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| primary lymphoid organs | the bone marrow and thymus producte daughter cells destined to become specialized lymphocytes
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| in the bone marrow, lymphocytes produce | immature B cells and NK cells
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| in the thymus, lymphocytes produce | immature T cells
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| the immature cells may subsequently | migrate to secondary lymphoid structures such as the spleen, tonsils, or lymph nodes
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| regulating factors for lymphocyte maturation have | yet to be fully understood
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| colony-stimulating factors (CSFs) | collective group of several hormones involved in the regulation of other WBC populations
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| commercially available CSFs have a | clinical use in cancer chemotherapy in that they stimulate the production of WBC
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