Urinary, acid-base balance,endocrine
Quiz yourself by thinking what should be in
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on it to display the answer.
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| 4 organs of the urinary system | kidneys
ureters
urinary bladder
urethra
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| location of kidneys (4 descriptions) | retroperitoneal
superior lumbar region
against posterior wall of abdominal cavity
on both sides of the vertebral column
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| encasing of kidneys | adipose capsule
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| function of renal capsule | provides cushioning to maintain integrity of delicate vascular system
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| inner area where urine forms | cortex and medulla
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| how is medulla arranged | medullary pyramids
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| function of minor and major calyces | funnels for urine collection
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| location of hilum | concave, medial side of kidney
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| function of hilum (2) | exiting of ureters
renal artery and vein entrance/exit
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| kidneys account for what percentage of cardiac output | 25%
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| how many liters of blood filtered daily | 200 liters
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| what does blood filtering allow | toxins, metabolic wastes, and excess ions to leave the body in urine
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| kidney functions (6) | removal of nitrogenous waste products from blood
controls rate of RBC production
regulates BP
regulates calcium absorption
regulates volume and composition of body fluids
maintains proper acid/base, water/salt balance
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| how do kidneys control rate of RBC production | secretion of erythropoietin
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| how do kidneys regulate BP | production of renin
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| how do kidneys regulate calcium absorption | activation of vitamin D
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| nephron | functional unit of kidney
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| components of nephron (2) | renal corpuscle
renal tubule
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| renal corpuscle | blood filtering unit
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| renal tubule | linear system of tubes that modify filtered blood (urine)
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| types of nephrons (2) | cortical nephrons
juxtamedullary nephrons
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| cortical nephron | renal corpuscle near surface of kidney and relatively short loop of Henle
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| juxtamedullary nephron | renal corpuscles deep in cortex and loop of Henle extend deep into medulla
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| importance of juxtamedullary nephrons | regulate water balance
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| blood supply to nephron (4) | afferent arteriole
glomerulus
efferent arteriole
interlobular vein
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| afferent arteriole | brings blood to renal corpuscle
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| glomerulus | anastomosing capillary system
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| site of filtration | glomerulus
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| glomerulus has what kind of capillaries and why | fenestrated for maximum permeability
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| glomerulus is surrounded by what? | podocytes
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| podocytes (2) | control size of pore slits
prevent large items from exiting blood
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| efferent arteriole (4) | slightly smaller than afferent
increased pressure forces more materials out of glomerulus
drains blood after filtration
increases filtration rate
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| branches of efferent arteriole | peritubular capillaries
vasa recta
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| peritubular capillaries (2) | supply renal tubules with blood
receive materials reabsorbed by tubules
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| vasa recta (2) | parallel loops of Henle of juxtamedullary nephrons
important for urine concentration mechanism
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| interlobular vein | drains blood from nephron
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| glomerular filtration | substances in blood leak out into Bowman's capsule
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| what kind of pressure drives filtration | hydrostatic
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| criteria for filtration | size
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| what can filter out of blood (3) | nutrients
wastes
small proteins
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| glomerulonephritis | antigen-antibody complexes and inflammation cause increase permeability of glomerular capillaries
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| effect of glomerulonephritis | cells, proteins leak into urine
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| function of net filtration pressure (NFP) | forces material out of blood into Bowman's space
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| what is NFP equal to | glomerular hydrostatic pressure - glomerular osmotic pressure - capsular hydrostatic pressure
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| what is glomerular filtration rate (GFR) dependent on | constriction/dilation of afferent arteriole
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| how is GFR determined | filtration pressure
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| obstruction of urine path increase and decreases what | increases capsular hydrostatic pressure
decreases GFR
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| tubular reabsorption | substances in the filtrate that the body wishes to conserve are actively transported into the peritubular capillaries
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| what happens to most filtrate volume | it is reabsorbed
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| where does majority of tubular reabsorption occur and why | proximal convoluted tubules because the epithelia has microvilli to increase surface area
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| concept of renal threshold | active transport of reabsorption has limited capacity
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| if amount of substance in filtrate is greater than transport capacity... | substance is present in urine
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| sodium and water retention (3) | sodium ions actively reabsorbed
negative ions follow sodium by passive transport
water follows by osmosis
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| where do sodium and water retention occur | proximal convoluted and distal convoluted tubules
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| why is reabsorption rate of some mineral hormonally controlled | to maintain homeostasis
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| what does PTH control | calcium reabsorption
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| what % of filtered urea is reabsorbed | 40
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| creatinine (2) | not reabsorbed
used to measure glomerular function
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| tubular secretion | some substances are actively transported from peritubular capillary into renal tube
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| what is tubular secretion used for | quick removal of substances from body
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| juxtaglomerular apparatus | mechanism that coordinates BP and sodium reabsorption
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| composition of juxtaglomerular apparatus (2) | macula densa of DCT
smooth muscle sphincter that wraps around afferent arteriole
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| macula densa | has chemoreceptors that monitor sodium in filtrate
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| juxtaglomerular cells | has mechanoreceptors that monitor BP in afferent arteriole
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| what do juxtaglomerular cells secrete when BP is too low | renin
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| what does renin do | activates angiotensin I in the blood
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| what is angiotensin I transformed to in the lungs | angiotensin II
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| what does angiotensin II stimulate | release of aldosterone from adrenal gland
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| what does aldosterone do | increases sodium reabsorption from kidney filtrate which therefore increases blood pressure
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| what concentrates urine to greatest degree | juxtamedullary nephrons
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| what maintains an increasing sodium gradient deep in the medulla | permeability properties of ascending and descending loops of Henle plus counter current mechanism of the vaso recta
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| what does the water permeability of the loop of Henle cause | excess amounts of water to leave kidney via osmosis
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| antidiuretic hormone (ADH) | released by posterior pituitary in response to decreased concentration of water in bloodstream
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| what does ADH cause | collecting ducts to be more permeable to water so water moves out of the ducts in the medulla via osmosis which concentrates urine more
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| urea (3) | primary waste product in urine
nitrogenous byproduct of amino acid metabolism
enters tubule by filtration but much is passively reabsorbed
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| uric acid (2) | nitrogenous byproduct of nucleic acid metabolism
majority reabsorbed to be recycled by body
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| gout | condition in which uric acid crystallizes out of blood and deposits in joints of hands and feet
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| gout treatment | drugs that inhibit uric acid reabsorption
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| ions always lost in urine (4) | sodium
potassium
others
potential bodily deficiency with excess urine production
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| ureters | tubular organ that conducts urine from kidney to bladder via slow peristaltic waves
squirts into bottom portion of bladder past flap-like valves
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| bladder | hollow distensible organ that stored urine
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| shape and size of bladder | greatly influenced by surrounding organs
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| trigone | region at base of bladder where ureters enter and urethra exits
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| detruser muscle | forms internal sphincter around urethra
reflex will not allow relaxation until pressure in bladder reaches a certain level
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| micturition reflex | process by which urine is expelled from the bladder
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| process of micturition (4) | bladder distended, stretch receptors transmit to micturition reflex center in sacral spinal cord
reflex triggers release of internal sphincter, urine progresses to external sphincter
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| urinary urgency | pressure on external sphincter
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| composition of external sphincter | skeletal muscle under voluntary control
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| nervous center for contraction of external sphincter | cerebral cortex and brain stem
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| nervous center for relaxation of external sphincter | pons and hypothalamus
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| urethra | muscular tube that connects the bladder to external urethral orifice and drains urine
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| gender urethral differences | very short in females
males have prostatic and penile urethra
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| female short urethra can cause | easier bladder infection
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| what can any prostate enlargement impair | urine flow
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| water accounts for what % of body mass, what determines %? | 45-75%
age, gender, fat:muscle ratio
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| water % of infants | 75%
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| water % of adults | 50-60%
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| water % of aged | 45%
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| more fat= | less water
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| intracellular fluids (ICF) (3) | within cells
approx. 2/3of body water
abundant potassium, magnesium, phosphate ions
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| extracellular fluids (ECF) (2) | outside of cells
abundant sodium, chloride, bicarbonate ions
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| plasma | fluid of blood
contains large amount of albumins
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| albumins | negatively charged proteins
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| interstitial fluid | fluid between cells
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| fluid movement between compartments regulated by? | osmotic and hydrostatic pressure
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| water movement between compartments | moves freely
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| solute movement | restricted by size and charge
dependent on active transport
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| osmosis | water always follows solute movement
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| water balance | intake should = output
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| input sources and % | ingested foods and fluids (90%)
metabolic water (10%)
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| regulation of input | thirst mechanism
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| thirst mechanism (3) | hypothalamus osmoreceptors sense increased plasma osmolarity or decreased fluid volume
inhibit secretions from salivary glands
sensation of being thirsty
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| output sources and examples (4) | lungs (moist air is expired with each breath)
skin (sweat)
GI tract (feces)
kidneys (urine)
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| obligatory water loss | unavoidable daily loss of water through skin, feces, lungs, and urine
~500mL per day
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| beyond obligatory loss | urine volume provided mechanism for water balance
regulated by aldosterone and ADH
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| dehydration | when water loss exceeds water intake
dry skin, thirst, decreased urine output
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| hypotonic hydration (4) | when body fluids are excessively diluted
cells become swollen by water entry
most common in babies given water or diluted formula
potentially lethal due to cerebral edema
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| edema | abnormal accumulation of water in interstitial space
can impair blood circulation
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| electrolyte balance | salts, acids, and bases
usually refers to only salt balance
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| electrolyte intake via diet | some electrolytes are ingested in excess amounts
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| electrolyte loss | via sweat, feces, urine
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| short-term electrolyte regulation | urine is only source
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| sodium in fluid and electrolyte balance (4) | central role
most abundant ion in ECF (90-95% of all solutes)
major effector of ECF osmotic pressure
control water volume and distribution among compartments
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| Na+ transport in renal tubules coupled to: | K+, Cl-, HCO3- and H+ concentration in ECF
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| renin-angiotensin system regulates: | water balance and BP
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| regulation of sodium balance | renin-angiotensin system
under neural control of sympathetic tone
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| Mg2+ excretion | increased by aldosterone
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| cardiovascular baroreceptors | acts as sensors of BP
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| falling arterial pressure | vasoconstriction and increased sodium reabsorption
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| rising arterial pressure | vasodilation and increased sodium excretion
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| atrial naturietic peptide (ANP) | increased BP stimulates certain atrial myocytes to release ANP
inhibits renin/aldosterone and ADH pathways thereby enhancing sodium and water excretion
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| estrogens in balance system | enhance sodium reabsorption
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| regulation of calcium balance | controlled by calcitonin and PTH
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| calcitonin | stimulates removal of calcium from blood
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| PTH | stimulates deposit of calcium into blood
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| acids | proton donors
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| strong acids | completely disassociate in solution
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| weak acids | incompletely disassociate in solution
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| bases | proton acceptors
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| blood pH | tightly, homeostatically controlled in arterial blood between 7.35 and 7.45
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| acidosis | blood pH below 7.35
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| alkalosis | blood pH above 7.45
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| origin of protons in blood (4) | ingested food (minor source)
breakdown of phosphorus containing proteins (phosphoric acid)
incomplete oxidation of fats (ketones) or glucose (lactic acid)
dissolved carbon dioxide (carbonic acid)
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| mechanisms to regulate blood pH (3) | chemical buffering systems
respiratory system regulation
renal mechanism
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| chemical buffering systems | composed of a weak acid and its salt
rapidly resist excessive pH changes by releasing or removing H+
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| examples of chemical buffering systems | bicarbonate
proteins
phosphate
ammonia
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| respiratory system regulation | acidosis activates respiratory center to increase respiration rate and depth of ventilation
eliminates excess CO2 causing an increase in pH of blood
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| renal mechanism | major long term control of pH
only source to eliminate metabolic organic acids (except carbonic) from the body
H+ produced via respiration of kidney tubule cells secreted into filtrate
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| renal mechanism exchange system | for each H+ secreted, on Na+ and one HCO3- are reabsorbed
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| how is urine buffered | via phosphate and ammonia in filtrate
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| controlling systems of the body | nervous
endocrine
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| nervous system | rapid control via nerve impulses
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| endocrine system | prolonged control via the action of hormones
primarily influences cellular metabolism
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| endocrine glands | secrete hormones directly into blod stream
systemic delivery to all cells/tissues
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| hormone | a substance made in one location that exerts its effect at another location in the body
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| exocrine gland | secretes product into a duct for delivery to one location
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| major endocrine glands of the body (8) | pituitary
thyroid
adrenal
pineal
thymus
pancreas
gonads
parathyroid
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| organs that contain isolated cluster of cells with endocrine functions (6) | stomach
small intestine
kidneys
heart
liver
adipose
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| hypothalamus | has both neural functions and works with pituitary gland
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| steroid hormones | derivatives of cholesterol
flat, hydrophobic molecules
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| amine hormones | derivatives of amino acids
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| peptide hormones | short chains of amino acids
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| protein hormones | long chains of amino acids
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| function of hormones | alter specific metabolic processes
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| target specificity | hormone must be recognized by cell in order to have effect
cells have receptors specific for certain hormones
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| hormone receptors | dynamic
body can alter which receptor are present on various cells and in what quantity
alters degree of response to hormonal message and effect
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| steroid hormones mechanism of action (5) | steroid diffuses across membrane, hormone/receptor complex initiates mRNA production, new protein sysnthesis, diffuse into cell and bind to protein receptors, receptor moves to nucleus and initiates mRNA translation of specific group of genes
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| nonsteroid hormones mechanism of action | bind to cell membrane receptor, binding activates intracellular portion of receptor, hormone-receptor complex triggers intracellular signaling pathway, activates/deactivates protein already present in cell
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| half-life and duration of effect | limited and vary for each hormone
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| what is half life and duration dependent on | rate of release
speed of inactivation and removal from body
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| how are hormones removed from body | blood by degrading enzymes, kidneys, liver enzyme systems
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| function of negative feedback loops | maintain hormone levels in very narrow ranges
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| negative feedback loop of hormone secretion | hypothalamus, anterior pituitary release tropic hormones, stimulates other glands to secrete, secondary endocrine organ, effector hormone
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| glands under direct neural control | posterior pituitary
pineal
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| changes in environment and example | some glands respond to changes in internal environment
beta cells of pancreas detect glucose levels
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| positive feedback loops | amplifies original stimulus
fewer examples
increase hormone concentration
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| pituitary gland | master gland of the body
hangs from base of brain via infundibulum and is encased within sella turcica
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| anterior pituitary | hormone secreting glandular portion
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| posterior pituitary | neural portion which is an extension of the hypothalamus
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| role of hypothalamus | regulates hormonal output of anterior via Releasing Factors and Inhibiting Factors, portal tract between hypothalamus and anterior pituitary, synthesizes two hormones that are transported and stored in posterior pituitary for later release
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| hormones of the anterior pituitary | tropic hormones, prolactin, growth hormone
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| tropic hormones | regulate release of hormones from other endocrine organs
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| gonadotropins | follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and leutinizing hormone (LH), reproductive functions
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| thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) | thyroid control
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| adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) | adrenal cortex control
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| prolactin (PRL) | promotes milk production
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| growth hormone (GH) | anabolic hormone that stimulates growth of all body tissues, stimulates somatomedians production in liver
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| somatomedians | mobilizes fats from adipose tissue and stimulates overall protein synthesis while inhibiting glucose uptake and metabolism
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| growth hormone most potent effect on | skeletal muscle and bone
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| GH hypersecretion | produces giantism in children and acromegaly in adults
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| GH hyposecretion | in children produces dwarfism
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| hormones of the posterior pituitary | both made in hypothalamus, oxytocin, antidiuretic hormone
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| oxytocin actions | dependent upon presence or absence plus number of receptors, labor contractions, milk ejection, orgasm
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| oxytocin reflex | controlled via hypothalamus by positive feedback
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| antidiuretic hormone (ADH) | kidney control
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| thyroid gland | located in anterior throat
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| thyroxin or thyroid hormone | acts to increase rate of cellular metabolism, manufactured in follicles of thyroid and stored as inactive colloid
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| Thyroxin action | low metabolic levels sensed by hypothalamus, release of thyrotropin-releasing factor, release of TSH from pituitary, re-uptake of colloid and conversion to T3 and T4 for secretion
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| T3 and T4 | most T4 is converted to T3 in target tissues, T3 is more potent, 95% of circulating hormone is T4
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| hyperthyroidism | commonly due to Grave’s disease, tumor, or other cause
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| symptoms of hyperthyroidism | overactivity, weight loss, nervousness, sweaty palms and forehead
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| hypothyroidism | common with increasing age, lethargy and weight gain, iodine deficiency, cretinism
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| iodine deficiency | enlarged thyroid
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| cretinism | due to maternal and/or infant hypothyroidism
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| calcitonin | lowers blood calcium levels by stimulating activity of osteoblasts, manufactured by parafollicular cells
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| parathyroid glands | located on dorsal surface of thyroid gland, secrete parathyroid hormone
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| PTH | antagonist of calcitonin, elevates blood calcium levels via several mechanisms
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| PTH mechanisms | increases osteoclast activity, stimulates activation of vitamin D in kidneys and production of calcium binding protein in small intestine, increase absorption of dietary calcium, increases active calcium reabsorption from filtrate in kidney
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| hyperparathyroidism | wasting away of bone due to excessive activity of osteoclasts
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| hypoparathyroidism | blood calcium levels too low impairs muscle action, tetany and respiratory paralysis
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| adrenal glands | located on superior surface of each kidney, functionally divided into cortex and medulla
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| adrenal cortical hormones | steroid hormones, cholesterol derivatives, mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, gonadocorticoids
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| mineralocorticoids | primarily aldosterone, increases blood pressure via reabsorption of sodium, release stimulated by renin/angiotensin system and/or ACTH, inhibited by atrial natriuretic factor
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| adrenal hormone indirect regulation | levels of other electrolytes that are coupled to sodium transport (rennin-angiontensin mechanism)
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| glucocorticoids | primarily cortisol, important metabolic hormones that enable the body to resist stressors
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| glucocorticoid actions | increase blood glucose, fatty acids, and a.a. levels, increase blood pressure, inhibit inflammation and immune responses, stimulated primarily by ACTH
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| gonadocorticoids | primarily androgens and estrogens, produced in small amounts throughout life in both sexes, cooperate with hormones released by gonads
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| adrenal medulla hormones | catecholomines (epinephrine and norepinephrine)
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| epinephrine and norepinephrine | prolong the fight-or-flight response of the sympathetic division of the ANS, neurotransmitters secreted into bloodstream
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| secretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine causes | blood glucose levels to rise, rise in blood pressure, the heart to beat faster, etc…
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| pancreas | endocrine portion called islets of Langerhans composed of alpha and beta cells
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| alpha cells | produce glucagon
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| beta cells | produce insulin
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| glucagon | polypeptide hormone released by alpha cells when blood glucose levels falling, stimulates liver to breakdown stored glycogen and release glucose into bloodstream
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| glycogenolysis | breakdown of glycogen
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| gluconeogenesis | synthesis of glucose from lactic acid and noncarbohydrates
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| insulin | released by beta cells in response to rising blood glucose levels, stimulates cellular uptake and metabolism of glucose, enhances transport of glucose into body cells
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| diabetes mellitus | lack of production or loss of receptor sensitivity
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| gonads | ovary and testes
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| pineal gland | located within diencephalon of brain, produces melatonin
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| melatonin | influences daily rhythms such as sleep/wake cycles
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| thymus | produces hormones necessary for the proper development of the immune system (t lymphocytes or t cells)
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| increased osteoclast activity | calcium release from bone
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