Praxis II PLT study info
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| Piaget | cognitive development; ss go thru 4 stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor- senses and motor activity; preoperational- gradually develops language & ability to think in symbolic form, think op thru logically in 1 direction, cant see POV others
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| Piaget 2 | concrete operational- able to solve concrete problems in logical fashion, conservation, classify, seriate, reversability; adult formal operational- able to solve abstract problems, more scientific in thinking, concerns about social issues
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| Bruner | the instructor should try to encourage ss to construct hypotheses, make decisions, and discover principles by themselves; ss build on what they have already learned; spiral curriculum- teaches big ideas first, details over time later on
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| Dewey | learning is active, should be fun, schooling is unnecessarily long & restrictive; ss should have real, guided experiences; should be involved in real-life tasks & challenges
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| Bandura | social cognitive theory= adds concern with cognitive factors such as beliefs, self-perceptions, & expectations to social learning theory; people learn through observing others' behavior, attitudes, & outcomes
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| Vygotsky | sociocultural theory= emphasize role in development of cooperative dialogues b/c children & more knowledgeable members of society. children learn the culture of their community through these interactions
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| Gardner | multiple intelligences- have a biological & cultural basis; logical/mathematical, linguistic, spatial/visual, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal (others), intrapersonal (self)
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| Maslow | hierarchy of needs: 4 lower-level-deficiency needs: survival, safety, belonging, self-esteem; 3 lower-level: intellectual achievement, aesthetic appreciation, self-actualization
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| Skinner | behaviorism; behavior is sandwiched b/w two sets of environmental influences: those that precede it (its antecedents) & those that follow it (its consequences)
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| constructivism/constructivist approach | view that emphasizes the active role of the learner in building understanding & making sense of info
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| Metacognition | knowledge about our own thinking processes
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| readiness | readiness to learn involves a level of development at which the child has the capacity to learn specific materials
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| schema | basic structure for organizing info; concepts
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| transfer | influence of previously learned material on new material
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| scaffolding | support for the learner and problem solving- helping them reach their ZPD
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| Zone of Proximal Development | phase at which a child can master a task if given appropriate help and support
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| intrinsic motivation | motivation associated with activities that are their own reward
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| extrinsic | motivation created by external factors such as rewards & punishments
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| Erickson | psychosocial theory= relation of ppl's emo needs 2 social environment; at each stage, individual faces a developmental crisis a conflict b/w a good & a possible bad alternative the way a person resolves each crisis affect self-image & view of society
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| Learning Styles | characteristic approaches to learning & studying;
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| Kohlberg | theories of moral development preconventional; judgment based on personal needs &others rules Conventional: judgment based on others approval, family expectations values, laws of society Post conventional: judgments based on personal principles
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| Gilligan | ethic of care; ppl move from focus on self to moral reasoning based on commitment 2 certain ppl & relationshps, then 2 highest level of morality based on principles of responsibility & care 4 all ppl
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| visual impairment & challenges | ss may be delayed in- concept development, communication, motor skills & mobility, self-help, social skills; intervention= auditory signs, large font, use braille, hands-on activities, orientation & mobility cues
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| special physical or sensory challenges | ss w/significant physical disabilities, health impariments, & TIB gen. qualify 4 special ed. services under 3 IDEA categories- orthopedic impairment, other health impariment, & tbi; intervention- use others as resources,flexible in planning,be creative
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| mental retardation | limited intellectual functioning that affects an individual's learning;interventions- determine readiness, present objectives simply, present material in small, logical steps, motivate ss & maintain attention; focus on a few target behaviors or skills
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| behavioral or emotional disorders | ss whose behavior falls considerably outside the norm, is chronic in nature, & is socially or culturally unacceptable; intervention- ensure interventions are developmentally appropriate & address the unique strengths & weaknesses of the individual
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| Developmental disabilities | mental or physical disabilities that impari the person's functioning in language, learning, mobility, self-care, or other important areas of living; range from mild to severe; ss present a wide range of characteristics, strengths, & challenges
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| Americans with Disabilities Act | prohibits discrimination against ppl w/disabilities; protects equal opportunity to employment & public services, accommodations, transportation, & telecommunications
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| Individualized Education Program (IEP) | purpose is to provide an appropriate ed. that meets specialized needs of each ss w/disabilities; developed & implemented by the multidisciplinary team
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| IEP includes | ss levels of ed.performance, including how their disability affects ss involvement in gen curriculum; special ed & related services, modifications; measureable annual goals, explanation of extent ss wont participate in gen ed class;
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| More on IEP includes | projected date for beginning of services & modifications, their anticipated frequency, & location, duration; how ss progress toward annual goals will be measured; method to inform parents of progress; intended to serve as planning guides 4 teachers
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| Inclusion | the placement (from part to full time) of ss w/disabilities in gen ed classroom w/ special ed supports & services as necessary
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| mainstreaming | refers to the participation of ss w/disabilities in gen. ed classrooms to the extent that is appropriate to mee their needs
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| Section 504 of the rehabilitation act | defines handicapped person; defines appropriate education; prohibits discrimination against ss w/disabilities in federally funded programs
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| due process | not only esures tht everyone w/a stake in the ss ed success has a voice, but also addresses written notification to parents for referral & testing for special ed
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| learned helplessness | the expectation, based on previous experiences w/a lack of control, tht all one's efforts will lead to failure
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| self-efficacy | a person's sense of being able to deal effectively w/a particular task; beliefs about personal competence in a particular situation
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| operant conditioning | learning in which voluntary behavior is strengthened or weakened by consequences or antecedents
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| reinforcement | use of consequences to strengthen behavior
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| positive reinforcement | strengthening behavior by presenting a desired stimulus after the behavior
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| negative reinforcement | strengthening behavior by removing an aversive stimulus when the behavior occurs
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| successive approximations | small components that make up a complex behavior
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| extinction | the disappearance of a learned response
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| punishment | process that weakens or suppresses behavior
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| continuous reinforcement | presenting a reinforcer after every appropriate response
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| intermittent reinforcement schedule | presenting a reinforcer after some but not all responses
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| critical thinking | evaluating conclusions by logically & systematically examining the problem, the evidence,& the solution
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| problem solving | creating new solutions for problems
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| social development: | changes over time in the ways we relate to others
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| cooperative learning | situations where elaboration, interpretation & argumentation are integral to the activity of the group & where learning is supported by others
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| direct instruction/explicit teaching | systematic instruction for mastery of basic skills, facts, & info
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| concept map | a drawing that charts the relationship among ideas
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| inquiry learning | approach in which the teacher presents a puzzling situation & ss solve the problem by gathering data & testing their conclusions
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| Madeline Hunter's effective teaching model | 1. anticipatory set
2. objective & purpose
3. input
4. modeling
5. checking for understanding
6. guided practice
7. independent practice
8. closure
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| David Ausubel's advance organizers | a method of briding & linking old info w/new; info that is presented prior to learning & can be used by the learner to organize & interpret new incoming info
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| mastery learning | proposes that all ss can learn when provided w/the appropriate learning conditions in the classroom
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| mnemonics | techniques for remembering; the art of memory
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| standardized tests | tests given, usually nation-wide, under uniform procedures
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| norm-referenced | assessment of ss achievement in relation to one another
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| criterion-referenced | testing in which scores are compared to a set performance standard
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| achievement tests | standardized test measuring how much ss have learned in a given content area
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| aptitude tests | tests meant to predict future performance
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| assessment of prior knowledge | reminding ss of info they have already learned relative to a new topic
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| portfolios | a systematic collection of a ss work over a lengthy period of time
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| self-evaluation | the process of evaluating one's own performance or behavior
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| performance assessment | assessment in which ss demonstrate their knowledge and skills in a nonwritten fashion
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| validity | the extent to which an assessment instrument actually measures what it is intended to measure
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| reliability | the extent to which an assessment instrument yields consistent info about the knowledge, skills, and abilities one is trying to measure
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| norm-referenced | a score that indicates how a ss performance on an assessment compares w/the average performance of other ss
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| criterion-referenced | a test score that specifically indicates what ss know & can do
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| mean | average- add all the scores and divide by the number of people
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| median | middle score in a group of scores
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| mode | most frequently occuring score
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| analytical scoring | scoring ss performance on an assessment by evaluating various aspects of their performance separately
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| holistic scoring | summarizing ss performance on an assessment w/a single score
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| rubrics | a list of components that performance on an assessment task should ideally include; used to guide the scoring of ss responses
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| percentile rank | a test score tht indicates the percentage of ppl in the norm group getting a raw less than or equal to a particular ss raw score
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| stanine | a standard score w/a mean of 5 & a standard deviation of 2; it is always reported as a whole number
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| raw score | a test score based solely on the number or point value of correctly answered items
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| grade equivalent score | measure of grade level based on comparison with norming samples for each grade
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| standard deviation | a statistic that reflects how close together or far apart a set of scores are & thereby indicates the variability of the scores
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| standard error of measurement | a statistic estimating the amount of error likely to be present in a particular score on a test or other assessment instrument
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| formative assessment | gathering info which is used to shape & improve future instruction- can use mult. times a day
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| summative assessment | done at the end of a project or period of time; it determines the effectiveness of a unit, program, grade level, etc.
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| diagnostic assessment | also known as pre-assessments; provide instructors w/info about ss prior knowledge & misconceptions before beginning a learning activity
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| Education for All Handicapped Children Act (PL 94-142B) | mainstreaming law; requires states to provide a free & appropriate public education for ss w/disabilities; least restrictive environment
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| Americans with Disabilities Act | Prohibits discrimination against ppl w/disabilities in the private sector; protects equal opportunity to employment & public services, accommodations, transportation, & telecommunications
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| Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act | allows districts to use RTI model for determining whether a child as a specific learning disability & no longer requires that a child have a severe discrepancy b/w achievement & intellectual ability to qualify
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| LRE- Least Restrictive Environment | the setting most like that of ss w/o disabilities that also meets each child's educational needs
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