lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, reproductive systems
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| Lymphatic System relationship with cardiovascular system | system of vessels that circulates body fluids from tissues back into the circulatory system
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| edema | collection/accumulation of body fluids in the tissues, causes swelling, pain, shortness of breath
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| lymphatic fluid/lymph | mostly water; may contain ions, gasses, nutrient molecules, waste products, secretions, proteins, bacteria, viruses, parasites, cancer cells
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| lymphatic capillaries | surround and entwine with blood capillaries; movement of materials is into lymph capillaries; porous, thin-walls lined with endothelium
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| collecting vessels | similar in anatomy to small veins; walls have three layers - 1) simple squamous, 2) smooth muscle, 3) connective tissue; help move lymph through the lymphatic system to the vena cava
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| trunks and ducts | very large lymph vessels. Trunks are found in these regions: lumbar, intestinal, intercostal, bronchomediastinal, subclavian, jugular. Collecting ducts are the largest lymph vessels. Thoracic Duct and Right Lymphatic Duct are two major ones.
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| thoracic duct | Lymph Collecting Duct, located along the midline of the body, empties into the left subclavian
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| right lymphatic duct | Lymph Collecting Duct, located to the right of the vertebral column, empties into the right subclavian
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| lymph nodes (nodules) | about 450, located in groups or chains; filters lymph; composed of reticular connective tissue, lymphocytes and macrophages; plays a role in immune response. Locations: cervical, axillary, mammary, inguinal, abdominal, pelvic, thoracic, popliteal.
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| flow of lymph | blood capillaries -> lymph capillaries -> collecting ducts -> subclavian veins
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| associated lymphatic organs | tonsils, thymus, spleen, aggregated lymphoid nodules in the intestine, appendix
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| MALT | Mucosa Associated Lymphatic Tissue. groups of cells that are not enclosed, not organs; found in the inner lining of many hollow organs. Example - "Peyer's Patches" in the large intestine
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| lymphatic nodules | section of lymph node circular clusters of white blood cells (lymphocytes and macrophages)
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| appendix | attached to the cecum, --------
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| tonsils | lymphatic nodules located in the pharynx
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| thymus | superior to the heart, also an endocrine gland, secretes thymosin, involved in maturation of T-lymphocytes
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| spleen | acts similar to a lymph node, acts as a filter for the blood by removing and recycling old and damaged red blood cells; serves as a blood reservoir, composed primarily of reticular connective tissue
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| lymphoma | cancer of lymphocytes; solid tumors often form in the lymph nodes
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| lymphatic system's role in defense against infection | Lymphocytes carry out specific immune responses; many different types of pathogens (bacteria, viruses, prions, etc.) are removed from the body via the lymphatic system
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| mechanical barriers | skin, mucus, stomach acid, cilia, hair
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| reticuloendothelial system | macrophages. phagocytic cells that "wander" throughout the tissues seeking out general bacteria and viruses; also includes neutrophils and eosinophils from the blood
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| macrophages | phagocytic cells
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| T-lymphocytes (cell-mediated immunity) | found in lymph nodes, carry out cell-mediated immunity by finding and destroying proteins identified by macrophages, plus the cell that the protein is attached to; typically involved wtih immune response to bacteria or protozoan invasions
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| B-lymphocytes | found in lymphatic tissue; produce antibodies that recognize certain proteins and bind to them, deactivating them and causing viral pathogens to "clump" into useless groups of cells; typically involved with viral infections or allergic reactions
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| humoral immunity | B-lymphocytes produce antibodies that bind to viral proteins and render the virus inactive
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| antibodies | very complex proteins that recognize viral proteins, bind to them and inactivate them
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| functions of the respiratory system | respiration/movement of air in and out of the lungs; gas exchange; sound production (singing, speaking); abdominal compression (defecation, lifting, urination); respiratory passages warm, moisten and filter air
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| upper respiratory tract | nose, nostrils, nasal cavity, nasal conchae, sinuses, pharynx, tonsils, larynx
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| nose | where air enters the respiratory system; bones on the bridge, cartilage below the nasal bone; dip between the nose and the upper lip is called the philtrum
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| nasal cavity | inside of the nose; septum divides the nasal cavity into two halves. Surrounded by the following bones: palatine bone, palatine process of the maxilla, nasal bone, ethmoid bone, perpendicular plate, vomer, maxilla, frontal, sphenoid, nasal conchae
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| sinuses | cavities within the cranial bones and nasal bone. Paranasal sinuses are connected to and empty into the nasal cavity; include front, sphenoid, ethmoid and maxillary sinuses
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| pharynx | throat; connects the nasal and oral cavities to the esophagus; facilitates swallowing; three regions: nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx
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| tonsils | contained in the pharynx,
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| larynx | most superior portion of the trachea; thyroid cartilage, cricoid cartilage and hyoid bone; both true and false vocal cords; glottis prevents air from moving in and out of the trachea
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| epiglottis | flaplike structure that keeps food from entering the trachea during swallowing
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| vocal cords | true vocal cords - white, medial
false/vestibular vocal cords - lateral
glottis (opening of the vocal cords) controls movement of air through the cords
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| lower respiratory tract | trachea, primary/secondary/tertiary bronchi, bronchioles, alveolar ducts
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| trachea | windpipe, composed of 16-20 C-shaped hyaline cartilage rings with a posterior gap to allow for expansion of the esophagus during swallowing; muscularis trachealis - smooth muscle that bridges the gap between cartilage rings
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| bronchial tree | includes right and left primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, bronchioles and alevolar sacs and ducts
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| primary bronchi | right and left, first branches off the trachea heading to the right and left lungs
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| secondary bronchi | branches off the primary bronchi
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| tertiary bronchi | branches off the secondary bronchi
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| bronchioles | smaller branches of bronchi
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| alveolar ducts | bronchioles open up into alveolar ducts which contain alveoli, or the air space in the lungs
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| alveoli | air space in the lungs, where gas exchange occurs
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| Type I cells | simple squamous epithelium, divides the alveolar ducts into air sacs
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| Type II cells | cells that produce surfactant, a material that reduces hydrogen bonds between water molecules, reduces surface tension and allows alveoli to expand and fill with air
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| macrophages | dust cells; keep alveoli clean
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| respiratory membrane | alveolar capillary membrane; very thin, 2-cell layer. Allows oxygen in and carbon dioxide out. Serves as the boundary between air and blood plasma in the capillaries
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| lungs | respiration organ that contain the smaller bronchi and alveoli
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| hilus of the lung | portion of the lung where the primary bronchi and blood vessels enter
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| apex of the lung | pointy top portion of the lung
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| base of the lung | broad base of the lung above the diaphragm, usually the part of the lung that inflates during inspiration at rest
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| cardiac notch | depression in the left lung that allows space for the heart
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| 5 lobes of the lungs | 3 right: right superior, right middle, right inferior
2 left: left superior, left inferior
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| pleural membranes | membranes filled with pleural fluid that allow the lungs to slide and keeps the plural membranes together; assists with lung inflation
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| diaphragm | muscle that contracts to allow the lungs to inflate; moves downward with contraction to allow space for lungs to expand
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| inspiration | inhalation, active
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| expiration | exhalation, passive
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| respiratory center | part of the medulla oblongata and pons that controls breathing
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| phrenic nerve | critical nerve in the cervical plexus that controls the contraction of the diaphragm
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| functions of the digestive system | mechanical digestion, chemical digestion, propulsion, defecation
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| organs of the digestive system | mouth/oral cavity, teeth, salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus
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| alimentary canal | GI tract; long "tube" that goes from the mouth to the anus
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| mucosa | inner lining of digestive organs; contains several different types of epithelium, lamina propria (connective tissue) and muscularis mucosa (smooth muscle)
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| submucosa | deeper lining of digestive organs; mostly connective tissue, many blood vessels
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| muscularis externa | skeletal muscle or smooth muscle layer of the wall of the GI tract.
skeletal - oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, anus
smooth - lower esophagus, allows for peristalsis in GI tract
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| adventitia/serosa | serosa - visceral peritoneum
adventitia - non-peritoneal organs, primarily connective tissue
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| mesentery | extension of visceral peritoneum in between pieces of visceral peritoneum
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| greater omentum | draps over the intestines like a curtain; folds of visceral peritoneum
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| lesser omentum | membrane between the stomach and the liver
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| segmentation | division of the alimentary canal into distinct regions
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| peristalsis | rhythmic contraction that moves food down the esophagus and into the stomach, also helps move chyme through the intestines
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| mouth/oral cavity | allows food to enter the digestive tract, organs of the mouth allow for mechanical digestion of food and beginning of carbohydrate digestion
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| lips | keep food from falling out of the mouth during chewing.
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| cheeks | help keep food between the teeth during chewing
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| palate | roof of the mouth, separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavity
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| uvula | cone-shaped dangly thing at the posterior portion of the soft palate; plays a role in speech; closes of the nasopharynx during swallowing
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| tongue | muscle in the mouth that manipulates food for chewing, covered with papillae (taste buds)
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| frenulum | piece of connective tissue that connects the tongue to the base of the mouth
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| vestibule | space between the teeth and the cheeks
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| teeth | allow for mastication (chewing) of food
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| incisors | biting, 2 per side in babies, 2 per side in adults
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| cuspids | ripping, tearing, 1 per side in babies, 1 per side in adults; also called canines or wolfteeth
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| bicuspids | premolars, grinding food; 2 per side in babies, 2 per side in adults
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| molars | grinding food; 3 per side in adults, none in babies
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| primary/deciduous teeth | baby teeth, milk teeth; smaller teeth due to smaller mouth size of infants and children; 20
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| secondary/permanent teeth | teeth that replace baby teeth; 32
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| crown | part of the tooth that protrudes above the gumline
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| enamel | covers the outer surface of the teeth, the hardest substance in the human body
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| dentin | not as strong as enamel, covers the tooth just under the gumline, very easily corroded
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| pulp cavity | contains blood vessels and nerves for each tooth
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| neck | part of the tooth that is in the gum
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| root | part of the tooth in the soft tissue below the gum
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| cementum | helps anchor teeth
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| periodontal ligament | holds each tooth in the alveolus
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| root canal | extension of the pulp cavity
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| salivary glands | exocrine glands that produce saliva,
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| saliva | secretion that helps freshen the mouth, moisten food, help keep bacterial growth in check; composed of water, mucus, amylase and lysozyme
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| amylase | component of saliva, enzyme that begins carbohydrate digestion
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| lysozyme | component of saliva, enzyme that breaks open certain bacterial cells and can destroy them
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| bolus | little ball of chewed food that is coated with mucus and saliva
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| parotid | major salivary gland located in the cheek area; responds to sour taste, infected by the mumps
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| submandibular | major salivary gland located under the mandible
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| sublingual | major salivary gland located under the anterior part of the tongue
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| pharynx | oropharynx and laryngopharynx are part of the digestive system; major role in swallowing and directing food toward the esophagus
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| esophagus | tube that transports food from the pharynx to the stomach; upper portion of the esophagus is skeletal muscle, lower portion is smooth muscle (peristalsis); stratified squamous epithelium that is resistant to friction
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| esophageal hiatus | hole that allows the esophagus to pass through the diaphragm
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| cardiac sphincter | keeps food from exiting the stomach once inside
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| stomach | begins protein digestion, contains enzyme pepsin that breaks down protein molecules into smaller pieces; churns and mixes food (physical digestion), some absorption of medications, etc; simple columnar epithelium that can handle acidic environment
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| cardiac region of the stomach | top portion of the stomach where the esophagus enters
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| fundus of the stomach | bump to the left of the cardiac region, gas can easily get trapped in this area
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| body of the stomach | main part of the stomach
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| pyloric region | end of the stomach just before the stomach attaches to the small intestine
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| pyloric sphincter | controls the release of chyme into the small intestine
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| rugae | inner lining of the stomach, contains many folds in the mucosa and submucosa, increases the surface area for secretion of HCl, pepsin and also for absorption
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| gastric juice | fluid secreted in the stomach
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| mucus cells | secret mucus, a component of gastric juice
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| parietal cells | secrete HCl, a component of gastric juice
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| chief cells | secrete pepsin, a component of gastric juice and enzyme necessary for digestion of proteins
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| pepsinogen | inactive form of pepsin; an enzyme in the stomach activates it when food is present, otherwise it would begin digesting the lining of the stomach
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| pepsin | enzyme necessary to break down protein for digestion
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| chyme | food "paste" that leaves the stomach
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| small intestine | receives chyme from the stomach, neutralizes stomach acid, finishes digestion, absorbs nutrients
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| duodenum | first portion of the small intestine, about 12 finger-widths
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| jejunum | second portion of the small intestin
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| ileum | third portion of the small intestine, connects to the large intestine
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| ileocecal valve | end of the small intestine, sphincter regulates movement of chyme into the large intestine
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| villi | folds in the intestinal wall covered with microvilli that increase the surface area of the small intestine for absorption and secretion
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| microvilli | small projections on each villus that increase surface area, visible as a brush border
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| brush border | microvilli as seen in a microscope
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| lacteal | capillary bed in each villus, allow for absorption of larger molecules such as fats and fat-soluble vitamins
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| digestive juice | secretions of the small intestine - mucus, bicarbonate, some enzymes
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| large intestine | absorbs water from chyme that passes from the small intestine, formation of feces
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| cecum | blind pouch where the ileum connects to the ascending colon; considered the beginning of the large intestine
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| vermiform appendix | blind pouch projection of the cecum, has no specific function but may play a role in immunity and maintenance of gut flora
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| ascending colon | portion of the large intestine that travels upward along the right side of the body
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| transverse colon | portion of the large intestine that travels across the top of the abdominal cavity
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| descending colon | portion of the large intestine that runs down the left side of the body, toward the rectum and anus
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| sigmoid colon | S-shaped section of colon between the descending colon and the rectum
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| rectum | final straight portion of the large intestine, acts as a temporary storage site for feces
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| anal canal | very last portion of the large intestine between the rectum and the anus
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| anus | opening where feces can be expelled from the body; has both skeletal muscle (voluntary) and smooth muscle (involuntary) that control the exit of feces
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| taeniae coli | 2 bands of smooth muscle along the large intestine that contract and cause the large intestine to "pucker"
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| haustrae | pouches of the large intestine formed by contraction of taeniae coli; slows down the movement of food for absorption and feces formation
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| mass movement | happens 2-3x per day, typically after a meal, significant peristalsis that moves chyme toward the rectum and often results in the urge to defecate
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| feces | mucus, bacteria, undigested materials, some liver waste product, very little water if digestion is working properly
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| pancreas | retroperitoneal, has both exocrine and endocrine functions; pancreatic duct enters the small intestines; pancrease secretes digestive enzymes and bicarbonate, also secretes insulin, a hormone that is critical for maintaining blood sugar
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| exocrine functions of the pancreas | secretion of digestive enzymes and bicarbonate, which neutralizes stomach acid
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| endocrine functions of the pancreas | secretion of insulin, which reduces blood sugar and signals the body to transport glucose into cells
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| pancreatic juice | secretions of the pancreas
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| insulin | hormone that is essential for regulation of blood sugar
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| liver | secretes bile, makes plasma proteins, acts as a filter during digestion, receives nutrient rich blood from the stomach and intestines, filters toxins
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| four lobes of the liver | right (largest), left (smaller), quadrate and caudate (on the underside)
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| lobules of the liver | units of lobes of liver, each has a central vein
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| central vein | vein that runs through the center of each liver lobule
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| hepatocytes | liver cells
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| sinusoids | capillaries between hepatocytes that get both hepatic artery blood and hepatic portal vein blood
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| bile | contains cholesterol and bile salts, used to help with fat digestion, also contains waste products (toxins) in the form of bilirubin (yellowish substance)
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| hepatic portal system | the hepatic portal vein brings blood from the digestive system to the capillary bed before the liver, the hepatic vein from the liver takes blood through a sinusoid capillary bed, then it goes to the inferior vena cava
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| portal triad | hepatic artery, hepatic portal vein, bile duct found between each lobule of the liver
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| hepatic portal vein | brings blood from the digestive tract to a capillary bed before the liver
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| hepatic artery | brings blood from the capillary bed to the liver??
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| bile/hepatic duct | collects bile from hepatocytes and takes it out of the liver
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| bile duct system, including cystic duct | right and left hepatic ducts bring bile out of the liver, they merge to form the common hepatic duct. The cystic duct from the gallbladder merges with this to form the common bile duct
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| gallbladder | stores bile and concentrates it until it is needed
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| functions of the urinary system | excretion of liquid waste - excess water, salt, waste products (particularly urea, a nitrogen-based waste that is toxic), medications
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| kidney | filtration organ, located in the abdominal cavity, retroperitoneal
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| hilus of the kidney | where the vessels and uerters enter the kidney
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| capsule of the kidney | tough fibrous layer that surrounds the kidney and provides some protection
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| cortex | darker, outer region of the kidney
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| medulla | paler, inner region of the kidney
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| medullary pyramids | part of the medulla that opens up into tubules that contain urine
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| renal papillae | pointy end/tip of the medullary pyramids
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| pelvis | wide portion of the ureter where it enters the kidney, where urine collects
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| minor and major calyces | urine passes through these two portions of the kidney before moving to the renal pelvis
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| uriniferous tubule | functional unit of the kidney, urine-forming tubule
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| nephron | filtration unit of the kidney; removes excess and waste products, cleans the blood; 1,000,000 per kidney
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| collecting duct | large tube, collects urine from several nephrons
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| renal corpuscle | glomerulus, Bowman's space, Bowman's capsule
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| renal tubule | proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule
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| glomerulus | capillary bed that is the first step in the filtration process
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| Bowman's capsule | surrounds the glomerulus and forms the renal corpuscle
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| proximal convoluted tubule | portion of the nephron just after the renal corpuscle, leads to loop of Henle
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| loop of Henle | between proximal convoluted tubule and distal convoluted tubule
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| distal proximal tubule | between the loop of Henle and the collecting duct
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| filtration | removal of waste products from the blood
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| absorption | recycling of needed products
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| secretion |
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| urine | liquid waste
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| "portal" blood flow | artery, afferent arteriole, glomerulus, efferent arteriole, second capillary bed (peritubular or vasa recta), venule, veins, renal vein
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| affertent arteriole | brings blood from the renal artery to the glomerulus
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| glomerulus | capillary bed that begins filtration process
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| efferent arteriole | brings blood from the glomerulus to a second capillary bed
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| peritubular capillary | capillary bed that is around convoluted tubules
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| vasa recta capillary | capillary bed that is around the loop of Henle
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| ureters | bring urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder
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| urinary bladder | stores urine
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| detrusor muscle | controls the release of urine from the urinary bladder
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| trigone | reinforced area between the two ureters and the urethra that does not expand as much as the rest of the bladder
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| sphincters | control the emptying of the bladder - internal urethral sphincter (smooth muscle), external urethral sphincter (skeletal muscle)
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| urethra (in male and female) | leaves the bladder and allows urine to exit the body
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| urethral orifice | hole at which urine exits the body
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| functions of the reproductive system | produce and maintain sex cells (gametes), produce and secrete sex hormones, transport sperm and supporting body fluids to femail reproductive tract, transport eggs to fallopian tubes, provide environment for development, move offspring out of body
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| gonads | primary sex organs; produce sex cells and sex hormones, early development and sex determination, determination of sex characteristics, development of secondary sex organs
testes - male
ovaries - female
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| ovaries | female sex organs, produce egg cells
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| testes | male sex organs, produce sperm cells
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| gametes | sex cells
egg/ovum/oocyte - female
sperm/spermatozoa - male
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| egg | female sex cell
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| sperm | male sex cell
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| sex hormones | females - estrogen and progesterone
males - testosterone
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| estrogen/progesterone | female sex hormone
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| testosterone | male sex hormone
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| secondary sex organs | males - scrotum, epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicle, prostate gland, bulbourethral gland, penis
female - uterine/fallopian tubes/oviducts, uterus (and cervix), vagina, labia minora and majora, clitoris, mammary glands/breast
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| scrotum | contains the testes and holds them away from the body; sperm requires cooler than body temperature
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| epididymis | stores sperm
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| vas deferens | transports sperm from the epididymis for ejaculation
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| seminal vesicle | located posterior to the prostate, secretes fluid that becomes semen
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| prostate gland | secretes fluid that is part of semen
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| bulbourethral gland | located at the base of the penis, secrete fluid that lubricates the urethra so sperm can pass through during ejaculation
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| penis | organ that allows urine and sperm to exit the body
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| uterine tubes | eggs released from the ovaries are fertilized in the fallopian tubes before passing to the uterus; three regions - infundibulum, ampulla, isthmus
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| uterus | womb; provides a place for an fertilized egg to implant and develop
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| vagina | canal from which a fully developed fetus can exit the body
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| labia majora and minora | outer portion of the vagina - labia major are outer lips, labia minora are inner lips
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| clitoris | located anterior to the urethra, sexual organ
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| breast | contains lactiferous ducts, produces milk that will nourish human infant
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| early development of male and female reproductive structures | happens during weeks 7-8 for males, weeks 8-9 for females; fetus is undifferentiated until this point; sex organs form and determine formation of secondary sex organs
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| functions of the endocrine system | helps regulate body functions and coordination of body activities - chemical reactions (metabolism), transport across membranes (such as insulin), regulation of water and ion balances, reproduction, development and growth, homeostasis
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| cooperation of the endocrine system with the nervous system | moves slower, more prolonged effects, more generally distributed effects, ultimately controlled by the NS (hypothalamus), some endocrine glands can be stimulated by neurons, brain produces some hormones, some hormones act on the brain
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| hormones | signal molecules that allow parts of the body to communicate, transmit information via body fluids (usually blood), no ducts to body surfaces (endocrine, not exocrine)
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| major endocrine structures | hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal gland, pancreas, pineal body, thymus gland, ovaries and testes, kidneys, digestive tract, heart, adipose tissue
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| hypothalamus | brain, part of the diencephalon
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| pituitary gland | "master gland" secretes hormones that act on other glands
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| thyroid gland | located in the neck, anterior to the trachea
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| parathyroid glands | smaller protrusions of the thyroid gland
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| adrenal glands | located on superior portion of the kidneys
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| pancreas | retroperitoneal, located in the abdomen, both exocrine and endocrine functions
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| pineal gland | small endocrine gland that produces seratonin
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| thymus | superior to the heart
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| ovary | female sex organ
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| testis | male sex organ
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| ,
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| ,
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