CNS, PNS, Cardiovascular system
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| neural plate | thickened layer of cells that becomes the neural tube and brain/spinal cord
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| neural tube | formed when the neural plate curls to form a tube. It divides into primary, then secondary brain vesicles that form the adult brain.
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| ventricles | formed by the lumen of the neural tube, hollow cavities inside the brain
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| central canal | remainder of the neural tube, cerebrospinal fluid-filled cavity within the spinal cord. Continuous with the ventricles of the brain.
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| anencephaly | failure of the anterior end of the neural tube to close, prevents the brain from developing. An infant with anencephaly has only a brain stem.
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| spina bifida | failure of the posterior neural tube to close, resulting in abnormal function of the spinal cord. Varying degrees of severity.
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| gray matter - cortex | cell bodies and unmyelinated axons in the brain, includes the gyri and sulci on the surface of the cerebrum.
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| gray matter - nuclei | cell bodies and unmyelinated axons, nuclei are "islands" of gray matter located deep inside the brain and surrounded by white matter
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| gray matter - horns | cell bodies and unmyelinated axons, H-shaped area in the middle of the spinal cord.
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| white matter - nerve tracts | bundles of myelinated axons that run from spinal cord -> brain (ascending, carrying sensory information) and brain -> to spinal cord (descending, carrying motor instructions)
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| white matter - spinal tracts/columns | bundles of myelinated axons: anterior column, posterior column, lateral column
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| spinal cord functions | 1. Ascending and descending tracts to the brain
2. spinal reflexes
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| conus medullaris | cone-shaped end of the spinal cord found in the lumbar region
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| lumbar puncture | A needle is inserted into the lumbar region to withdraw cerebrospinal fluid for culture. Usually done at L4 or L5 because there is no spinal cord, only nerves. Also called a spinal tap.
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| filum terminale | "end hair" piece of connective tissue that attaches the spinal cord to the coccyx. Part of the pia mater.
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| anterior median fissure | Prominent groove in the front of the spinal cord. Divides the spinal cord into right and left halves.
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| posterior median sulcus | Less prominent groove in the back of the spinal cord. Divides the spinal cord into right and left halves.
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| anterior horns | part of the gray matter of the spinal cord, located in the front of the gray matter area. Contain motor neurons that stimulate effectors.
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| lateral horns | part of the gray matter of the spinal cord, located on the sides. Contain motor neurons that stimulate effectors.
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| posterior horns | part of the gray matter of the spinal cord, located in the back of the gray matter area. Receive information from sensory neurons.
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| gray commissure | connects the right and left parts of the gray matter of the spinal cord.
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| central canal | hole in the middle of the gray matter of the spinal cord.
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| anterior tracts/columns | white matter of the spinal cord, located toward the front.
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| lateral tracts/columns | white matter of the spinal cord, located on the sides.
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| posterior tracts/columns | white matter of the spinal cord, located toward the back.
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| dorsal root | brings sensory information from the body to the spinal cord
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| ventral root | sends motor information from the spinal cord to the body
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| dorsal root ganglion | bulge in the dorsal root that contains sensory nerve cell bodies.
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| decussation | crossing over of nerve tracts from one side of the body to the opposite side of the brain. Different patterns for different types of receptors - some cross early, some cross almost at the brain.
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| brain characteristics | complex organ, contains 100 billion multipolar neurons, weighs about 3 lbs (2% of body weight), high metabolic rate (uses 20% of cardiac output)
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| brain functions | complex neurological functions, sensory-motor integration, life-sustaining tasks (heart rate, respiratory rate, blood pressure), maintains homeostasis through autonomic nervous system and endocrine system, innervation of the head
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| cerebrum functions | Sensory functions (vision, hearing, smell, etc.), Association functions (processing of sensory information), Motor functions (control of voluntary motor actions)
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| cerebral hemispheres | Division of the cerebrum into left and right halves
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| cerebrum | Wrinkly surface of the brain that accounts for 83% of brain mass.
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| longitudinal fissure | deep groove that divides the cerebrum into left and right hemispheres
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| cerebral cortex | "Executive Suite" of the nervous system. Controls awareness, voluntary movements, communication, memory, understanding.
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| convolutions | twisted structures/ridges that form the gyri of the cerebrum
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| gyrus | ridge found on the surface of the cerebrum, located between sulci
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| sulcus | shallow groove found on the cerebrum, furrows; prominent ones divide the brain into five major lobes
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| transverse fissure | prominent groove that separates the cerebrum from the cerebellum
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| central sulcus | groove that separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe
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| lateral sulcus | groove that separates the parietal lobe from the temporal lobe
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| 4 lobes of the brain | frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital
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| corpus callosum | major area of white matter (commissural fibers) deep in the brain
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| association fibers | connect neurons in the same hemisphere of the brain
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| commissural fibers | connect neurons in different hemispheres of the brain
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| projection fibers | connect the cerebral cortex to other parts of the brain or spinal cord, allows sensory information to reach the cerebral cortex and motor information to leave
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| primary motor cortex | located in the frontal lobe, controls voluntary skeletal muscle activity; fine motor skills have more primary motor cortex space than gross motor skills
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| primary somatic sensory cortex | Primary sensory cortex that receives information from the general somatic senses (touch, pressure, pain, temperature), located in the parietal lobe. More cortex is devoted to areas of greater sensation (tongue, fingers, etc.)
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| visual cortex | Receives and interprets visual information. Located in the occipital lobe.
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| prefrontal cortex | Memory, spacial tasks, complex organization of the brain, working memory, object recall, problem solving, higher end processing.
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| lateral ventricles | fluid filled cavities lined with ependymal cells located in the cerebral hemispheres.
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| diencephalon | thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, pineal gland
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| thalamus | sensory information relay center; contains many gray matter nuclei that send information to the cerebral cortex; "gateway" to the cerebral cortex since all signals must be relayed through the nuclei of the thalamus
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| intermediate mass | connects the left and right parts of the thalamus
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| hypothalamus | "below the thalamus"; forms the third ventricle; regulates many of the visceral organs plus things like the ANS, emotional responses, body temp, hunger/thirst, sleep-wake cycles, endocrine system, memory, motivation
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| pituitary gland | technically part of the endocrine system, "the master gland" because hormones control other endocrine structures, dangles from the hypothalamus; secretes 8 different hormones, all but 1 act on other endocrine structures
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| pituitary stalk | connects the pituitary gland to the hypothalamus; infundibulum
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| pineal gland/pineal body | secretes a hormone-like molecule (melatonin) in response to sleep-wake cycles; regulated by the hypothalamus, located off the posterior part of the thalamus
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| third ventricle | space between the two halves of the hypothalamus
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| brain stem | midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata; connects the brain to the spinal cord
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| midbrain | surrounds the cerebral aqueduct that connects the third and fourth ventricles
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| copora quadrigemina | two pairs of nuclei in the posterior part of the midbrain that control two important visual and auditory reflexes - turning head toward visual cues or loud noises
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| cerebral aqueduct | connects the third and fourth ventricles
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| pons | bridge between the midbrain and the medulla oblongata; controls breathing
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| medulla oblongata | most inferior part of the brain, connects the brain and spinal cord; repsonsible for non-vital reflexes such as coughing, sneezing, swallowing, vomiting; contains 3 vital centers that control critical functions (cardiac, vasomotor, respiratory)
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| 3 vital centers | cardiac (controls heart rate, contraction, force of contraction), vasomotor (controls smooth muscle in the walls of arterioles and veins for vasodilation and vasoconstriction), respiratory (breathing rate, how deeply we breathe)
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| fourth ventricle | in the brain stem, connects to the central canal of the spinal cord
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| cerebellum | "little brain"; receives sensory information related to body position and movement from muscles, joints, inner ear, eye; sends that information to muscles to maintain posture and equilibrium; voluntary movement commands from the cerebrum
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| cerebellar cortex | Outer part of the cerebellum, gray matter. Smooths/coordinates body movements.
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| arbor vitae | White matter of the cerebellum. Axons that carry information to and from the cortex. "tree-like" structures
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| vermis | "worm" - connects the two hemispheres of the cerebellum
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| meninges | connective tissue membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord; cover and protect the CNS, enclose and protect blood vessels that supply the CNS, contain cerebrospinal fluid
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| dura mater | outer layer of meninges, dense connective tissue
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| dural sinus | space in between the periosteal and meningeal layers of the dura mater of the brain
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| epidural space | pad of fat just outside the spinal dura mater between the dura mater and the bone
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| dural sheath | dura mater of the spinal cord
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| arachnoid mater | middle layer of the meninges; inferior to dura mater; wispy, weblike threads
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| arachnoid villi | small protrusions of the arachnoid mater that allow cerebrospinal fluid to exit the brain
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| subarachnoid space | space between the dura mater and teh arachnoid mater; contains very little fluid but can fill with fluid in the event of trauma or disease
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| pia mater | innermost layer of the meninges; intimately attached to the organs of the CNS, contains a lot of blood vessels, delicate connective tissue layer.
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| cerebrospinal fluid | watery fluid that fills the hollow cavities in the brain and spinal cord; provides cushion and protection to the brain and spinal cord; carries nutrients to brain/spinal cord, wastes away from brain/spinal cord
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| choroid plexus | formed by the pia mater and ependymal cells, area where cerebrospinal fluid is produced; found in the ventricles and in the subarachnoid space around the brain
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| meningitis | inflammation of the meninges; caused by virus or bacteria
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| epineurium | membrane that surrounds groups of fasicles
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| perineurium | membrane that surrounds each fasicle
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| endoneurium | membrane that surrounds each axon
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| fascicle | bundle of axons
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| sensory nerve | carries afferent (sensory) information to the CNS from the body
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| motor nerve | carries efferent (motor) information from the CNS to the effectors
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| mixed nerve | carries both sensory and motor information; examples include spinal nerves
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| 12 pairs of cranial nerves | I. olfactory
II. optic
III. Oculomotor
IV. Trochlear
V. Trigeminal
VI. Abducens
VII. Facial
VIII. Vestibulocochlear
IX. Glossopharyngeal
X. Vagus
XI. Accessory
XII. Hypoglossal
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| cervical plexus | interconnected group of nerves that extend from the cervical portion of the spinal cord, includes the phrenic nerve
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| brachial plexus | interconnected group of nerves that innervate the upper limb
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| lumbar plexus | interconnected group of nerves that innervate the lower limb
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| sacral plexus | interconnected group of nerves that extend from the sacral region and innervate the lower limb, contains sciatic nerve
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| phrenic nerve | stimulates the diaphragm to contract for inhalation
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| sciatic nerve | extends from the buttocks all the way down the leg
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| somatic nervous system | Division of the PNS associated with sensory information and voluntary motor movements. Two divisions: Sensory (Afferent) and Motor (Efferent)
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| proprioceptors | joint and muscle receptors that inform the CNS about the body's position
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| autonomic nervous system | Division of the PNS associated with the visceral organs, all efferent. Two divisions: sympathetic and parasympathetic.
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| referred pain | internal pain that is felt in other parts of the body; example - pain in the arm when experiencing a heart attack
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| autonomic ganglia | groups of neuron cell bodies in the PNS; examples - paravertebral ganglia, terminal or collateral ganglia located near target organs
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| preganglionic neuron | nerve that carries information from the CNS to an autonomic ganglion
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| postganglionic neuron | nerve that carries information from an autonomic ganglion to an effector
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| sympathetic nervous system | division of the Autonomic Nervous System that controls the "fight or flight" response; increases heart rate, respirations, blood pressure; decreases non-essential functions like digestion or reproduction
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| parasympathetic nervous system | Division of the Autonomic Nervous System that is more in control when the body is at rest; "rest and digest" system; decreases heart rate, respiration, blood pressure; increases digestion, reproductive functions
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| adrenal medulla | part of the adrenal gland located above the kidney that is a modified ganglion; contains postganglionic neurons that secrete the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine; controlled by the sympathetic nervous system
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| somatic vs. autonomic reflex pathway | somatic involve skeletal muscle, autonomic involve involuntary visceral muscles
somatic involve sensory neuron, association neuron and motor neuron;
autonomic reflexes involve sensory neuron, preganglionic neuron (after cord), post ganglionic neuron
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| base of the heart | most superior part of the heart
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| apex of the heart | pointy part of the inferior portion of the heart
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| location of the heart | located in the mediastinum in the pericardial cavity
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| pericardial sac | membrane that surrounds the heart and roots of the great blood vessels; two layers
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| parietal pericardium | membrane that lines the pericardial cavity, outermost layer of the pericardial sac
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| visceral pericardium | innermost layer of the pericardial sac, membrane that is the outer covering of the heart
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| layers of the heart wall | epicardium - visceral pericardium
mycardium - cardiac muscle
endocardium - inner lining
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| 4 chambers of the heart | right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium, left ventricle
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| 4 valves of the heart | tricuspid valve (rt. atrium -> rt. ventricle), bicuspid valve/mitral valve (l. atrium -> l. ventricle), aortic semilunar valve (l. ventricle -> aorta), pulmonary semilunar valve (r. ventricl -> pulmonary trunk)
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| interventricular septum | division between the left and right atria and the left and right ventricles
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| auricles | "flaps" of tissue that allow the volume of the heart to increase in response to increased blood flow
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| great vessels | aorta, pulmonary trunk - carry blood to and from the heart
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| superior vena cava | brings blood that is low in oxygen to the heart from the upper body
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| inferior vena cava | brings blood that is low in oxygen to the heart from the lower body
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| pulmonary trunk | brings blood from the heart to the pulmonary arteries and then the lungs for oxygenation
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| pulmonary veins | return oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart
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| aorta | brings oxygenated blood from the heart to the various parts of the body
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| chordae tendineae | cordlike tendons that connect the papillary muscles to the tricuspid and bicuspid valves, part of the "skeleton" of the heart
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| papillary muscles | muscles that prevent the tricuspid and bicuspid valves of the heart from prolapsing
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| skeleton | fibrous connective tissue that reinforces the valves, supports them and insulates the atria from the ventricles
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| coronary arteries and sinus | part of the blood supply for the heart muscle; coronary sinus returns deoxygenated blood to the right atrium; coronary arteries divert oxygenated blood from the base of the aorta to the cardiac muscle
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| flow of blood through the heart | superior/inferior vena cava -> right atrium -> tricuspid valve -> right ventricle -> pulmonary trunk -> pulmonary arteries -> lungs -> pulmonary veins -> left atrium -> bicuspid valve -> left ventricle -> aorta -> arteries
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| pulmonary circuit | heart - > pulmonary trunk -> pulmonary arteries -> lungs -> pulmonary veins -> heart
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| systemic circuit | heart -> aorta -> arteries -> organs -> veins -> inferior/superior vena cava -> heart
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| SA node | located in the right atrium near the superior vena cava; group of cells that conducts electrical signals and stimulates the heart to contract
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| AV node | located in the bottom of the right atrium, near the tricuspid valve; group of cells that transmit electrical signals and stimulate the heart to contract
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| AV bundles | branch of teh AV node that goes through the interventricular septum
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| bundle branches | branches of AV bundles. right and left
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| Purkinje fibers | subendocardial branches; smaller branches off right and left bundle branches
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| cardiac center of medulla oblongata | part of the medulla oblongata that controls heart rate
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| cardiac and vagus nerves | cardiac nerve - sympathetic control of the heart, increases heart rate and force of contractions; vagus nerve - parasympathetic control of the heart, decreases heart rate
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| functions of blood | 1. transport nutrients
2. regulate pH
3. regulate solute concentration
4. maintenance of body temperature
5. protection against invasion
6. clotting
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| characteristics of blood | 55% fluid matrix (plasma), 45% formed elements (red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets)
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| plasma | fluid matrix of the blood; contains water, proteins (albumin, fibrinogen), some glucose/gasses, and serum.
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| serum | plasma without fibrinogen (clotting protein)
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| fibrinogen | protein essential for blood clotting
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| hematopoiesis | formation of blood cell components
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| hemocytoblasts | blood "stem cell" that gives rise to different types of blood cells
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| leukemias | cancers of the blood cells
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| erythrocytes | red blood cells, most abundant formed element in the blood; no nuclei; primary function is to carry oxygen; small, about 7.5 micrometers
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| hemoglobin | protein that binds oxygen subunits, each subunit has an iron (Fe2+) ion, 98% of oxygen is transported this way
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| anemia | reduced ability to transport oxygen
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| leukocytes | white blood cells; have nuclei; several different types - granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils) and agranulocytes (lymphocytes, monocytes)
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| granulocytes | leukocytes that contain secretory vesicles; neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
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| neutrophils | type of leukocyte; phagocytic cells; circulate in the blood; first line of defense against infection, very generalized
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| eosinophils | more specialized infection-fighting leukocytes; involved in allergic reactions and can attack parasitic worms
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| basophils | type of leukocyte, involved in allergic reactions
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| agranulocytes | leukocytes that do not contain secretory vesicles
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| monocytes | type of leukocyte that gives rise to macrophages, circulate/"crawl" through tissues and organs
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| lymphocytes | type of leukocytes that are in circulation in places like lymph nodes or clustered in organs; have specific immune response; produce antibodies
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| thrombocytes | platelets, fragments of cell cytoplasm and membranes, no organelles; main function is to help with clotting, contain fibrinogen
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| megakaryocytes | cells that break into thrombocytes
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| five types of vessels | arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins
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| artery | carry blood from the heart; strong; semi-rigid (similar to heavy-duty outdoor hose); thicker walls; circular lumen; elastic
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| arteriole | smaller branches of arteries; can change diameters to help regulate blood pressure
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| capillary | smaller branches of arterioles, where material exchange happens, smallest vessels, largest surface area, most extensive
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| venule | merged capillaries
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| vein | merged venules, return blood to the heart; thinner walls than arteries (similar to lightweight garden hose); irregular shaped lumen; walls are extensible
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| three layers in walls of larger blood vessels | tunica intima, tunica media, tunica externa
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| tunica intima | endothelium that contains simple squamous epithelium, innermost layer of blood vessel wall
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| tunica media | middle layer of blood vessel wall, contains smooth muscle and elastic fibers
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| tunica externa | outermost layer of blood vessel wall, collagen fibers and connective tissue
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| endothelium | simple squamous epithelium that comprises the tunica intima
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| internal elastic membrane | border between the tunica intima and tunica media of arteries
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| vasometer center of the medulla oblongata | controls the smooth muscle of the tunica media that can change the diameter of arterioles and cause vasoconstriction or vasodilation to help control blood pressure
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| vasodilation | expansion of walls of blood vessels, lowers blood pressure
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| vasoconstriction | constriction of walls of blood vessels, increases blood pressure
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| fenestrated capillary | capillary that has fairly large pores; medium amount of permeability that allows larger molecules to pass for absorption or excretion; ex - kidneys and small intestine
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| sinusoidal capillary | most permeable type of capillary, ex - liver, bone marrow, spleen; allows many molecules to pass through
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| precapillary sphincters | group of smooth muscle cells that constrict the openings of a capillary bed and allow blood to move through true capillaries only
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| skeletal and respiratory mechanisms that return blood to the heart | skeletal - skeletal muscles can contract to push blood through a vein
respiratory - breathing creates pressure gradients
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| placenta | organ that facilitates exchange between the fetus and the mother; has separate fetal and maternal vessels, blood does not mix; also acts as an endocrine gland and secretes progesterone
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| umbilical arteries | 2 branches of the internal iliac artery that carries blood from the fetus to the placenta; exit through the umbilicus
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| umbilical vein | vein that carries blood from the placenta to the fetus; passes through the liver and connects to the inferior vena cava and then on to the heart
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| CVS differences between fetus, newborn and adult | fetus has 2 additional arteries and 1 additional vein that constrict and become ligaments after birth; fetus also has two mechanisms where some blood can bypass the lungs - ductus arteriosis and formen ovale
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| ductus arteriosus | small vessel connecting the pulmonary trunk to the aorta that allows some blood to bypass the lungs and go to other parts of the body; this vessel constricts at birth
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| foramen ovale | small flap-like holes between the right and left atria that allow some blood to bypass the lungs; holes close after infant takes first breath after birth
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| continuous capillary | least permeable type of capillary network; forms part of the blood brain barrier in the CNS; ex - skin, muscle, CNS
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| blood reservoir | slow moving blood in the veins
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| valves (veins) | help blood flow back to the heart against gravity (prevents blood from flowing backwards away from the heart)
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