Anatomy
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| what's the average weight of the heart | 250-300 g
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| what's the amount of blood the heart pumps per min/day | 5.5L/min or 8000L/day
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| what are the two parts of the pericardium | fibrous pericardium and serous pericardium
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| what type of tissue is the fibrous pericardium made of | tough dense CT
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| what are some of the functions of the fibrous pericardium | protects; anchors the heart; prevents overfilling
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| which pericardial layer is the outer layer | fibrous pericardium
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| which pericardial layer is also the epicardium of the heart wall | visceral layer of the serous pericardium
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| what makes up the myocardium | cardiac muscle and supporting CT
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| from where does blood enter the right atrium | inf. and sup. vena cava, coronary sinus, and anterior cardiac veins
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| from where does blood enter the left atrium | 4 pulmonary veins
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| from which ventricle does blood enter the aorta | left ventricle
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| from which ventricle does blood enter the pulmonary trunk | right ventricle
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| from which blood vessel do coronary arteries originate and along what groove do they run | aorta; atrioventricular groove
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| which cardiac veins enter the heart directly and where | anterior cardiac veins enter right atrium directly
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| what cardiac veins enter the coronary sinus | great, middle, and small cardiac veins.
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| name the right atrioventricular valve | tricuspid
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| what's the function of the AV valves | to prevent backflow of blood into the atria
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| what are the chordae tendinae made of | collagen
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| how many cusps make up a semilunar valve | three
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| what two factors contribute to the independent coordinated activity of the heart | gap junctions; the heart's intrinsic conduction system
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| what are the membrane potentials fo the autorhythmic cells called | pacemaker potentials or prepotentials
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| what cation causes the rising phase of the action potential in autorhythmic cells | Ca2+
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| name the locations where autorhythmic cells can be found | SA node, AV node, AV bundle, right and left bundle branches, ventricular walls (Purkinje fibers)
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| where is the SA node located | right atrium
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| how and to where does depolarization spread from the SA node | via gap junctions to the AV node
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| what that factors are responsible for ventricular depolarization | Purkinje fibers and cell to cell transmission via gap junctions
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| does the cardiac conduction system make the heart beat faster or slower than without it | faster
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| which branches of the ANS increases heart rate and force of heartbeat | sympathetic
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| what part of the brain contains the neurons that control heart rate | medulla oblangata
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| via which nerve does the parasympathetic center send impulses to the heart | vagus
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| what do the terms diastole and systole refer to | diastole = relaxation; systole = contraction
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| true or false. each ventricle pumps the same volume of blood per beat | true
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| what is cardiac output | amount of blood pumped by each ventricle in 1 minute
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| what is responsible for the heart sounds heard on a stethoscope | closing of valves
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| what is the quiescent period | the period of total heart relaxation
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| what causes the first heart sound | closing of the AV valves
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| what causes the second heart sound | closing of the semilunar valves
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| what is the tunica interna made of | endothelium and loose CT
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| what is the tunica media made of | smooth muscle and elastic fiber sheets
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| what makes up most of the tunica externa | collagen fibers
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| where is the tunica media thicker, arteries or veins | arteries
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| where is the tunica externa thicker, arteries or veins | veins
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| which blood vessels are most responsible for maintaining blood pressure, arteries or veins | arteries
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| what layer are really small arterioles and veins missing | tunica externa
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| what are the 4 processes involved in respiration | ventilation, external respiration, transport of respiratory gases, internal respiration
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| what is external respiration | gas exchange between the blood and the airsacs in the lungs
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| what is internal respiration | gas exchange between the blood and tissue cells
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| what types of cells make up the respiratory mucosa | ciliated simple columnar cells and goblet cells
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| what types of cells line the alveoli | type 1 or simple squamous cells
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| what are type 2 cells | cuboidal cells which secrete surfactant
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| what comprises the respiratory membrane | alveoli together with the pulmonary capillary endothelium
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| list the main functions of the kidneys | excretion; regulation of blood volume/composition; production of erythropoetin; metabolism of vitamin D to active form; production of renin (for BP regulation)
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| which part of the kidney contains the collecting ducts | medulla
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| what is the name given to a glomerulus and the glomerular capsule | renal corpuscle
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| which structure collects urine from the collecting ducts and drains into the ureters | renal pelvis
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| which arteriole feeds the peritubular capillaries, afferent or efferent. | efferent
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| what comprises the filtration membrane | fenestrated endothelium of glomerular capillaries; basement membrane; podocytes of the Bowman's capsule
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| are podocytes found on the visceral or parietal layer of the glomerular capsule | visceral
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| which nephrons play a key role in the kidney's ability to produce concentrated urine | juxtamedullary nephrons
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| how much blood is filtered by the kidneys each day | 50 gal
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| how much fluids and solutes are reabsorbed by the kidneys each day | 49 gal
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| what do we call the cells of the stomach which produce HCl | oxyntic or parietal cells
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| what else do oxyntic cells secrete and what is that product used for | intrinsic factor which is needed for vitamin B12 absorption in the small intestine
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| which cells produce pepsinogen | chief cells or zymogenic cells
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| what else do chief cells produce in very insignificant amounts | lipases
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| what are some of the substances secreted by enteroendocrine cell | gastrin, histamine, endorphins, serotonin, cholecystokinin, somatostatin
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| how much bile does the liver produce daily | 500-1000 ml
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| what are the 4 lobes of the liver called | left, right, caudate, quadrate
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| what are the functional units of the liver | lobules
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| what are the macrophages in the liver sinusoids called | Kuppfer cells
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| into what part of the intestine is bile released | duodenum
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| what is another name for the eyelids | palpebrae
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| what is inflammation of the tarsal glands called | chalazion
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| what is sty | inflammation/infection of ciliary or non-tarsal glands
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| what does the caruncle contain | sebaceous and sweat glands - it has a white secretion
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| what is the conjunctiva | a transparent mucous membrane that lines the eyelid and whites of the eye
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| what makes up lacrimal fluid | mucous, antibodies, lysozymes
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| what is the composition of vitreous humor | collagenous fibers
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| what are the three tunics of the eye | sclera, uvea (choroid), retina
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| what is the cornea made from | it's a clear collagenous layer
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| what covers both sides of the collagenous layer of the cornea | epithelial sheets that allow regeneration
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| what makes up the uvea | blood vessels, iris and ciliary body
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| what is the iris | colored part of eye that acts as diaphragm to open and close the pupil
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| what is the iris made of | smooth muscle
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| what is the function of the ciliary body | it controls lens shape and secretes aqueous humor
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| what is the lens made of | crystalline proteins
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| in phototransduction, what is the sequence in which neural signal is carried | photoreceptors => bipolar cells => ganglion cells => optic nerve
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| which photoreceptors work in dim light | rods
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| where is the olfactory epithemium located | in the upper part of the nasal cavity
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| after a neural signal goes to the olfactory bulb, what other two areas can it go to next | olfactory cortex and limbic system
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| what separates the outer ear from the middle ear | eardrum or tympanic membrane
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| what key structures are in the middle ear | malleus, incus, stapes (the ossicles)
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| what major structures are in the inner ear | vestibule, cochlea, and semicircular canals
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| which structure contains the receptors for hearing | cochlea
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| what structures are involved with equilibrium | vestibule and semicircular canals
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| what are some things which can cause tinnitis | inflammation of the middle ear, cochlear nerve degeneration, side effect of medications
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| what is tinnitis | ringing or clicking sound in the ears in the absence of auditory stimuli
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| what inputs are necessary for our sense of equilibrium | inputs from inner ear, vision, and stretch receptors
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| what do the equilibrium mechanoreceptors sense | they sense position and acceleration
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| name the sensory receptors located in the vestibule | maculae
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| name the sensory receptors located in the semicircular canal | cristae
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| what type of motion do the hair cells in the maculae sense, linear or rotational | linear
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| what drugs depress vestibular inputs | dramamine and bonine
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| name the three types of granulocytes | neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
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| these WBC release histamine from their granules | basophils
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| what type of nuclei do agranulocytes normally have | spherical or kidney shaped
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| what are the two types of stem cells that can form from a hemocytoblast | myeloid and lymphoid stem cells
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| what can the myeloid stem cell turn into | granular leukocytes and monocytes
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| what is hemostasis | complex series of reactions that stop bleeding after a blood vessel is injured
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| what are 3 functions of the lymphatic system | helps maintain fluid balance of tissues; provides transport route for absorbed fat; helps defend against diseases
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| list the order in which lymph vessels collect fluid | lymph capillaries => collecting vessels => trunks => ducts
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| where does the right lymphatic duct drain into | rt. subclavian vein/jugular vein junction
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| what drives the flow of lymph in lymph vessels | skeletal muscle movement; smooth muscle movement in wals of trunks and ducts; lymph vessels bundled with blood vessels by CT uses pulsation of blood vessels
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| which type of lymphocyte mediates a humoral response and which mediates a cellular immune response | B lymphocyte => humoral (antibodies) ; T lymphocyte => cellular immune response
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| what are 3 types of T cells | helper, killer, memory
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| what is the predominant type of tissue in lymph organs | loose reticular CT except for the thymus
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| what are the 4 sets of tonsils | lingual, palatine, pharyngeal, tubal
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| what are the major functions of the spleen | site for lymphocyte proliferation and immune surveillance; removes debris, pathogens from lymph and blood; extracts aged RBCs and platelets; mediates iron recycling; site of fetal erythrocyte production; stores platelets
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| what is the function of the thymus | site of maturation of T lymphocytes
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