The Nervous System
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| 3 main processes the nervous system is involved in | 1. receives information, 2. stores/processes information, 3. effects interactions and maintains homeostasis
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| cell body | receives and processes information, makes a decision
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| axon hillock | part of cell body of a neuron that connects to axon
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| initial segment | part of an axon where action potentials are initiated
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| axon | all or nothing, send a signal through axon to synaptic cell
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| axon terminal | releases the electrical impulse of the presynaptic cell
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| synaptic knob | Neurotransmitter is released into the synapse from vesicles as a neuron reaches the synaptic knob
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| myelin sheath | a fatty white substance that forms an electrical insulating layer and surrounds the axon, increases speed of electrical signal
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| synapse (noun) definition | a junction between 2 nerve cell bodies, consisting of a minute gap across which impulses pass by diffusion of a Neurotransmitter
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| unipolar neurons | one process is attached to the nerve cell body (in our sensory neurons)
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| bipolar neurons | two processes are coming out of the soma
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| multipolar neurons | more than two processes are coming out of the soma, common in our body (motor neurons)
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| 2 major components of nervous system WITHIN the Central Nervous System | spinal cord and brain
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| a bundle of axons in the CNS are called... | fiber tracts
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| a bundle of axons in the PNS are called... | nerves
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| a group of nerve cell bodies in the CNS is called... | nuclei
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| a collection of nerve cell bodies in the PNS is called... | gaglia
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| astrocytes (location and function) | location: wrapped around blood vessels, function: help maintain extracellular enviornment
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| ependymal cells (location and function) | location: lines cavities, function: cilia circulates fluid
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| microglial cells (location and function) | location: brain and spinal cord,
function, digest things that dont belong, disposal system
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| oligodendrocytes (location and function) | location: around axons,
function: speed up signal down axon
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| satellite cells (location and function) | location: PNS
function: support and nuture neurons, supply nutrients
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| schwann cells (location and function) | location: PNS,
function: produce a lipid substance that wraps around an axon, create myelinate sheath
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| formal name for the sensory nervous system | afferent, bringing information toward central nervous system
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| formal name for the motor nervous system | efferent, bringing information away from central nervous system
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| what kind of signal passes down the length of the axon? | electrical signal
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| what is meant by the term 'potential' in terms of cells? | the result of charge differences across membranes, measured in voltage
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| is the charge inside a cell more or less negative than outside the cell? | more negative inside the cell
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| name of large molecules that stay inside the cell and dont leave. what effect do they have on membrane potential? | DNA and cell protein, make inside the cell negative
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| in the sodium potassium pump, what direction does each ion travel? | NA+ pumped out, K+ pumped in
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| is ATP required for the sodium potassium pump to work? what kind of transport is used? | yes ATP, active transport
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| what is the ratio of sodium and potassium ions pumped across the membrane? | 2 K+ and 3 Na+
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| sodium and potassium ions are both positive. Why does pumping them influence the membrane potential? | because pumping them makes it more negative since its going against the concentration gradient.
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| Do leak channels require ATP? What kind of transport is used? | no ATP, Facilitated diffusion because need help of protein channel
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| Na+ and K+ leak channels | allow K+ to leak back out, and Na+ to leak back in
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| what is the value of the typical resting potential? (Vr) | -70 mV
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| resting membrane potential | difference in charges inside vs outside (-70 mV)
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| what is the equilibrium potential for K+? | -90 mV
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| what is the equilibrium potential for Na+? | +66 mV
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| K+ equilibrium potential | chemically K+ wants to go out, electrically K+ wants to stay in
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| Na+ equilibrium potential | chemically Na+ wants to leak in, electrically Na+ also wants to leak in
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| why is Vr so much closer to the equilibrium potential of K+ and not Na+? Vr = -70 | because cell membrane is a lot leakier to potassium, and membrane with leak channels is permeable to potassium
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| 3 kinds of gated channels | mechanically, chemically, voltage
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| mechanically gated channels (what causes it to open and does it require ATP) | No ATP, opens by membrane stretch by physical distortion
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| chemically gated channels (what causes it to open and does it require ATP) | No ATP, opens by chemical ligands - molecule binds with channel
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| voltage gated channels (what causes it to open and does it require ATP) | No ATP, opens by threshold voltage
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| Graded Potential (definition, and where in neuron is it located?) | getting more positive, but not reaching threshold.
located in dendrites and NCB's
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| what machinery allows for graded potentials? | ligand-gated ion channel proteins
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| when threshold is reached, what opens to begin the action potential? | the sodium channels open when voltage reaches threshold
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| what is threshold and what happens when it is reached? | threshold is the limit at which the neuron needs to exceed/hit in order for an action potential to be initiated
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| refractory period | a period immediately following stimulation during which a nerve or muscle is unresponsive to further stimulation
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| absolute refractory period | point at which action potentials cant come through again
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| relative refractory period | point at which action potentials can come through, but it is difficult
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| what 3 factors can influence speed of an action potential? | diameter, temperature, myelination
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| what structure surrounds the axon of some neurons? what name is given to this kind of movement of the action potential? | myelinated sheath, satitory propagation = movement from node to node
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| saltatory propagation | action potentials down myelinated axons jump from node to node
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| continuous propagation | unmyelinated axons
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| synapse | communication space between the 2 neurons
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| what kind of cell junction allows for an electrical synapse? | gap junction , because there is a direct travel of ions through a tube between two cells
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| what is one advantage of an electrical synapse? | fast and bidirectional
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| what is one disadvantage of an electrical synapse? | signal is diminished
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| what kind of channels open in response to action potential in the synaptic knob, and what happens when it opens? | voltage gated Ca+ channels open, Ca+ flows into the cell and causes synaptic vesicles to migrate down and merge with membrane, then allows release of NT into the synaptic cleft
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| what kind of transport do neurotransmitters use to cross the cell membrane? | vesicular transport - exocytosis (moving out of)
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| excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP's) | opening chemically gated sodium channel, sodium flows in, depolarizes, gets us closer to threshold
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| inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSP's) | opening of chemically gated potassium channels, moves us away from threshold
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| what are 3 mechanisms for removing NT from the synapse? | degrade, diffuse, reuptake
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| Chemically gated potassium channel (location in neuron) | dendrites, NCB's, axon
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| voltage gated calcium channel (location in neuron) | synaptic knob
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| sodium potassium pump (location in neuron) | axon
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| potassium leak channel (location in neuron) | axon
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| action potentials (location in neuron) | axon
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| graded potentials (location in neuron) | dendrites and NCB's
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| voltage gated channels (location in neuron) | axon
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| 3 basic germ layers | extoderm (outside), mesoderm (middle), endoderm (inside)
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| CNS gray and white matter (why gray and white?) | gray = dendrites don't get myelinated so they remain gray, white = myelin sheaths give or axons the white color
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| location of gray and white matter in brain vs spinal cord | in brain, cerebral cortex is gray around outside and the fiber tracts are white on the inside, in spinal cord, all gray matter is deep to the white matter
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| the cerebrum | consciousness awareness of sensations, motor decisions, personality, ability to make decisions
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| cortex (location) | outer layer of the cerebrum
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| basal nuclei (function) | direct activities at the subconscious level (initiation and termination of movement, ex. holding hand steady)
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| gyris and sulci | gyrus are folds, sulci are grooves
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| primary somatosensory cortex | biggest parts = hands, face,lips (facial expressions, speech, sound production)
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| primary motor cortex | fine motor control, part of the brain that starts an action potential that then causes motor events (ex: moving thumb)
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| hippocampus | in cerebrum, involved in memory
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| commissure | connects the left and right hemispheres in brain
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| corpus callosum | allows our left and right hemispheres to communicate
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| diencephalon | made of thalamus, major relay center for sensory information
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| hypothalamus | master control center, involved in homeostasis, emotion, hunger, appetite, signals the pituitary gland
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| epithalamus | contains the pineal gland which produces melatonin - regulates our sleep/wake cycle
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| cerebellum | important in movement, allows smooth movement to occur, minimizes motor errors
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| medulla oblongata | basic life support! centers for cardiovascular and respiratory rhythmicity, homeostasis
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| pons | bridge,ascending and descending tracts, sending information from nerves and spinal cord up to our brain, our brain sends decisions down
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| how do we protect our CNS (brain and spinal cord) | meninges! layer of CT (dense irregular) that surrounds the brain and spinal cord
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| the Autonomic nervous system (ANS) has only WHAT TYPE OF NEURONS | visceral motor neurons
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| somatic motor system | voluntary, nuclei are located in anterior gray horn of spinal cord, 1 neuron per circuit, NT released at end of axon is always acetylcholine
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| autonomic nervous system | involuntary, nuclei are located in spinal for in lateral gray horn, 2 neurons per circuit, includes ganglia,
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| 2 types of autonomic divisions (how body maintains homeostasis) | sympathetic division, parasympathetic division
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| sympathetic division | prepares for action, coming out of spinal cord
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| parasympathetic division | promotes a restful state (except digestion), craniosacral - coming out of the brain
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| 4 types of spinal nerve plexuses | cervical plexus, brachial plexus, lumbar plexus, sacral plexus
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| plexus definition | way of safely getting axons from one nerve to another nerve
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| sensory receptors | take information/energy and change the stimulus into an action potential
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| why do people not realize they smell? | sensory adaptation! they stop perceiving some sort of stimulus
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| mechanoreceptors | gives us our lightest touch, discriminating touches, vibration and deep pressure, can feel hair follicles move
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| receptive fields on finger tips | have many sensory receptors, easy to tell 1 touch from 2
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| baroreceptors | (type of mechanoreceptor), respond to pressure changes in arteries and veins
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| proprioreceptors | respond to muscle/tendon stretch
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| nocireceptors | pain receptors
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| thermoreceptors | temperature receptors
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| general chemoreceptors | respond to chemicals
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| the special senses: olfaction | sense of smell, olfactory neurons are embedded in our nostrils
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| the special senses: gustation | the tongue and taste buds, chemicals dissolve in our saliva and then encounter our taste buds where there are receptors
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| lacrimal gland | what creates tears and constant moisture, protects from bacteria
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| 3 layers of the eye | fibrous layer (outermost), vascular layer (middle), neural layer (innermost)
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| fibrous layer (includes what structures?) | outermost layer of eye, scream cornea
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| vascular layer (includes what structures?) | middle layer of eye, iris, choroid, cilliary body
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| neural layer (includes what structures?) | innermost layer of eye, retina
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| what is the area of best vision? | fovea
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| lens | does the focusing for us
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| rods and cones | rods are in our peripheral vision and are nighttime receptors, cones are in our central vision and allow us to see colors
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| 2 types of eye muscles | dialater muscles and constrictor muscles
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| rhodopsin | pigment in rods
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| how can we adapt to different light levels? | rhodopsin molecule breaks down when lint hits it because it is bombarded with photons, can be slowly rebuilt with ATP
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| do we adapt to light or dark faster? why? | light. because in order to see in lower light levels, more rhodopsin is needed which takes awhile to regenerate
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| pitch: __________, volume: ____________ | pitch: frequency, volume: amplitude
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| color vision 3 cone types | red cones, blue cones, green cones
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