Neuroanatomy final
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| Central Nervous System | Cerebrum, cerebellum, brainstem, spinal cord, thalamus, etc.
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| Peripheral Nervous System | Spinal nerves, cranial nerves, sensors
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| autonomic (visceral) | Involuntary body functions of visceral muscles (cardiac, glandular secretions, digestive function)
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| somatic | Voluntary body functions
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| Autonomic NS Innervations | Glands, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle
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| Somatic NS | Motor control is largely dictated by the precentral region of the cerebral cortex with nerve impulses conveyed thru descending motor tracts (efferent) of the brain and spinal cord.
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| Nerve Tracts | The mode of communication from the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body
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| Sensory (Afferent) | Info received from the environment and sent to the brain for processing (constant regulation of vital abilities - HR, body temp)
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| Motor (Efferent) | Convey info from the cerebral cortex out to the periphery
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| 3 Types of Nerve Tracts | Projection, Association, and Commisural
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| Projection | tract from cortex to brainstem
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| Association | provide communication between regions of same hemisphere
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| Commisural | Communication between right and left hemisphere
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| Efferent (motor) pathways | Pyramidal & Extrapyramidal
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| Pyramidal | Corticobulbar and corticospinal
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| Corticobulbar | from the motor cortex to the brainstem; motor cranial nerves for speech
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| Corticospinal | from the motor cortex, pre-motor cortex and SMA to the spinal nerves in the spinal cord
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| Extrapyramidal | basal ganglia and reticular formation (originate in the cerebral cortex, but moves outside the medulla; provide background tonicity; reflexes
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| Afferent (sensory) pathways | Spinothalmic
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| Spinothalmic | from environment to higher brain centers; pain and thermal regulation
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| Grey Matter | Neuronal bodies
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| White Matter | Mylinated axons
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| Upper Motor Neurons (UMN) | connect the brain to the appropriate level in the spinal cord or brainstem, from which point nerve signals continue to the muscles by means of the lower motor neurons
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| Lower Motor Neurons (LMN) | Final Common Pathway
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| Gyri | mountains of the brain
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| Sulci | valleys of the brain
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| Fissure | deeper groove of the brain
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| Surface of the cerebral cortex of the brain doubles on itself, surface becomes convoluted -Function of this? | Increased surface area for neuron power
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| Lateral Sulcus | "Sylvian Fissure" divides the temporal lobe from the frontal lobe
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| Central Sulcus | "Rolandic Fissure" divides frontal lobe from the parietal lobe
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| Broadmann's Areas | He brain mapped - diff parts of the brain have specific functions
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| Dura Mater | Superficial layer of protection; more inelastic (fibrous/rigid)
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| Arachnoid Mater | middle layer; many of the blood vessles for the brain pass through - where cerebral spinal fluid flows
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| Pia Mater | thin cobering of the brain itself; major arteries/veins that serve the cerebral cortex are here
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| Falx cerebri | separates the two hemispheres of the cerebrum into R and L, down to the corpus collosum
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| Falx cerebelli | separates the two hemispheres of the cerebellum into R and L
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| Tentorium cerebelli | Horizontally divides the cerebrum into superior (cerebral) and inferior (cerebellar) regions
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| Diaphragma sella | separates the pituitary gland, hypothalamus, and optic chiasma
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| Cerebrum - Dura Mater Infolds | Falx cerebri, falx cerebelli, tentorium cerebelli, and diaphragma sella
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| Cerebrospinal fluid | protection, nutrition, waste removal
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| Hydocephalus | occlusion of the cerebral spinal fluid pathway. literally "water on the brain". Most common obstruction is cerebral aqueduct -btw the 3rd and 4th ventrical) Treatment = meds and shunt.
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| CSF originates? | in the ventricles and is absorbed by the venous system of the brain
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| Ventricular System | CSF and 2 paired lateral ventricles, 3rd ventricle, 4th ventricle, and choroid plexus
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| 3rd Ventricle | sits around the thalamus
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| 4th Ventricle | flows through cerebral aquaduct
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| choroid plexus | aggregate of tissue that produces cerebro spinal fluid
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| Venus System | Choroid plexus moves the subarachnoid space and bathes the brain in CSF and then gets eliminated via the venus system
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| Cerebrovascular system | complex interconnected vascular system (arteries, veins) blood carries oxygen to the organs including the brain
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| Vascular system of the brain | the brain constitutes 2% of our overall body weight but requires 20% of the oxygen needs of the body due to its high metabolic requirements. Blood carries this O2 thru the brain.
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| Arteries | Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart; aorta
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| Veins | Carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart; vena cavas
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| Circle of Willis | encircles the optic chiasma and is a series of vessels that provide collateral blood flow to the left and right hemispheres of the brain as well as the anterior posterior aspects.
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| What is the Circle of Willis? | The carotid and vertebral systems are joined by communicating arteries that help ensure equilized distribution of blood and safeguard against vascular accidents
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| What are the 2 primary arteries involved in the Circle of Willis Anterior? | Carotids and vertebrals
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| Common Carotid arteries of the circle of willis -anterior branch to... | the internal and external carotids (only internal CA supply blood)
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| Internal Carotid Arteries (ICA) branch off to... | the anterior cerebral artery (ACA) and the middle cerebral artery (MCA)
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| Anterior Cerebral Artery (ACA) | frontal/ parietal lobes, copus callosum, BG (basal ganglia) regions
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| Middle cerebral artery (MCA) | temporal lobe, motor strip, Broca's, Wernicke's, sensory regions
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| What does the Middle Cerebral Artery do? | supply blood to areas critical for speech, language and hearing. It is the largest and courses laterally thru the lateral sulci
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| Lenticulostrate arteries | arteries of the middle cerebral artery that branch off and supply blood to the Basal Ganglia and internal capsule
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| Watershed area | Diffuse symptoms, not as severe, but more widespread speech lang deficits.
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| The Circle of Willis -Posterior | The basilar artery divides to become the left and right posterior cerebral arteries (PCA)
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| Basilar Artery | Left and right vertebral arteries join to form the basilar artery
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| Posterior cerebral arteries | serve the inferior temporal and occipital lobes, primary visual cortex, cerebellum (supply blood to back part of brain)
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| Posterior communicating arteries (PCOM) | connect the PCA to the MCA
(2 of them)
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| Anterior communicating artery (ACOM) | connects the ACAs
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| Venous system | blood drains into the cisterns (both superficial and deep). It returns to the general bloodstream via the jugular veins and eventually the superior vena cava
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| Spinal Vascularization | Anterior/posterior spinal arteries supply the spinal cord. Radicular arteries serve the spinal nerves
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| Cerebrum | "bark" outer surface of the brain. Made up of 6 cell layers with 2 basic cell types (pyramidal -pyramid shaped involved in motor funciton. And non-pyramidal cells-star shaped, involved in sensory information or intercommunication btw cells)
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| Right hemisphere of the cerebrum | mostly devoted to creativity
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| Left hemisphere of the cerebrum | mostly devoted to logic abilities.
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| Corpus collosum | bundle of axons which connect the 2 hemispheres; information/communication highway
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| What is the cerebrum | It controls voluntary functions. Considered the seat of consciousness and it is the most highly evolved and organized structure of the body. (includes: gray matter, white matter, and gyri & sulci)
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| Intra-axial hemorrhages | occur within the brain tissue, due to trauma or stoke
3 types: intraventricular, intraparenchymal, intracerebral
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| Intraventricular | bleeding into ventricals
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| Intraparenchymal | bulk of the brain tissue
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| Intracerebral | intraxial hemorrhage (general term)
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| Extra-axial hemorrhages | occurs outside of the brain tissue; can be due to trauma
3 types: epidural hematoma (EDH), subdural hematoma (SDH), subarchnoid hemorrhage (SAH)
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| Frontal Lobe | Largest of the lobes, accounts for 1/3 of the cerebral cortex. Executive functioning, language, motor control of body. Includes: precentral gyrus-motor strip, SMA/Pre-motor area, Pre-frontal cortex, and Broca's area
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| Homunculus | Topographic organization
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| Parietal Lobe | Post-central gyrus is the sensory counterpart to the motor strip - primary site of sensory input; distribution of sensory function by body region is closely related to the motor strip. Supramarginal gyrus-motor planning for speech. Impairments here=autism
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| Angular gyrus of the Parietal lobe | important in comprehension of written language
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| Temporal Lobe | Auditory and receptive language processing; auditory reception, memory acquisition.
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| Superior Temporal Gyrus (Heschl's gyrus) | auditory information is projected. Posterior area = Wernicke's Area
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| Wernicke's Area | auditory comprehension and processing
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| Arcuate Fasciculus | Tract of nerve fibers running from Broca's to Wernicke's area.
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| Occipital Lobe | Posterior limit of the brain. Primary Visual cortex
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| Insular Cortex | Plays a role in consciousness, emotion, homeostasis, cognitive functioning, perception, self awareness, and hand eye coordination
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| Cerebellum | Older than the cerbrum. 2 Hemispheres, highly folded surface. Regulation/coordination of movement, posture and balance. Plays a role in memory for motor function. Ataxia
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| Subcortical Structures | Basal ganglia, thalamus, hippocampu, hypothalamus, amygdala. Functionally, compose the limbic system.
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| Basal Ganglia | Composed of the caudate nucleus, putamen, substantia nigra and globus pallidus. Movement disorders
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| Lentiform | Globus pallidus and putamen together
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| Striatum | Putamen and caudate nucleus together.
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| Thalamus | Situated deeply in the forebrain. Sensory and motor function. Last relay site for sensory info be4 reaches cerebrum. Reticular activating system - sleep/wake and attention
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| Hypothalamus | Inferior/ventral to the thalamus. Homeostasis, autonomic responses, thirst/hunger, emotion, reproduction, dysautonomia. (Primative emotions)
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| Hyppocampus | In proximity of the temporal lobe. Learning and short-term memory. Recall spacial relationships in world, communicates with the hypothalamus. Retrograde amnesia and anterograde - due to damage in this area
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| Amygdala | Located in the temporal lobe. Involved in memory, emotion, and fear. Autism
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| Brainstem | Consists of the medulla oblongata, pons and midbrain. Intermediate stage of organization. Originates site of cranial nerves. Midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata.
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| Spinal Cord | Begins at foramen magnum and courses inferiorly thru the vertebral column. Has both efferent & afferent components. Relays motor info, relays sensory info, & coordinates reflexes
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| Synaptic Pruning | C1q is secreted by neurons to identify "un-needed" synapses
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| Theory of autism | sensory overload (diminished amnt of C1q)
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| Alzheimers/Dementia | Increased amnts of C1q
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| Neuroplasticity | ability of the brain to regenerate neuronal pathways &/or find alternate neuronal pathways to compensate for damage
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| Left Hemisphere of brain | characterized by language deficits
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| Right Hemisphere of brain | higher level cognitive deficits (thinking, planning, organize, STM, processing) and visual deficits
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| Communication Disorders | Aphasias, cognitive-communicative disorders, apraxia, dysarthria, cognitive-communicative disorders
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| ALS | Happens where UPN and LMN connect (damage to nerve cells and glial cells
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| MS | Demylination of axons (damage to nerves)
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| PD | damage in the basal ganglia (damage to glial cells)
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| Cerebral hemisphere neuropathologies | Encephalitis, brain injury, and dementia
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| Disruption of supporting systems of the CNS (blood supply, meningeal coverings and ventricular systems) | Meningitis, hydocephalus, and stoke
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| Meningitis | #1 cause=ear infections. Inflammation of the meninges (pia and arachnoid) Including the subarachnoid space and CSF. Microorganisms enter the CSF
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| Hydocephalus | Blockage/obstruction usually from the ventricles. Inadequate drainage results in increased intracranial pressure causing brain tissue to shift out of the way
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| Stroke | vascular disease interrupting the blood supply to various CNS tissues
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| Ischemic | Type of stroke common in the MCA (80% of stokes) can be thrombotic or embolic
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| Ischemia | decrease in oxygen and glucose to brain tissue
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| Thrombotic Stroke | gradual buildup of plaque that occludes
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| Embolic Stroke | material that travels in the blood stream until it gets to an artery/capillary that's too narrow
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| Hemorrhagic stroke | (20% of stokes) a burst in the vessel. Results in bleeding on the brain
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| TIA (transient ischemic attack) | mirrors symptoms of a stoke, but resolves - sign you may have a stroke soon
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| Common locations of a stroke | meningeal layers (epidural, subdural, subarachnoid) and Intracerebral/parenchymal (subcortically)
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| Antecedents of a stroke | Hypertension (malignant or chronic) Aneurysm (weakening of an artery wall resulting in ballooning out over time)
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| Arteriovenus Malformation | abnormally formed capillary beds
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| Encephalitis | inflammation of generalized brain tissue causing swelling, usually in the temporal lobes; viral - herpes
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| Traumatic brain injury | brain damage as a result of physical trauma. Can be penetrating (open head injury that pierces thru brain matter) or non-penetrating (closed injury as a result of blunt trauma or rotational acceleration)
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| Discrete lesions | concussion, contusion, hematoma, ischemic brain damage
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| Diffuse lesions | diffuse axonal injury and hypoxic/anoxic.
May have more lasting effects
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| concussion | most minor of brain injuries. alteration of consciousness for a short time. visual and vestibular deficits
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| contusion | minor hemorrhage or tearing of blood vessel at the site of impact (coup, contrecoup)
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| hematoma | accumulation of blood (epidural, subdural)
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| ischemic brain damage | ACA or MCA distribution (see in soldiers)
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| diffuse axonal injury | damage to nerve fibers (axons); shearing of white matter
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| hypoxic/anoxic | decreased oxygenation of tissue (hypotension, high intracranial pressures, seizures, cardiopulmonary compromise)
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| Mechanisms of Traumatic Brain Injury | Discrete lesions and diffuse lesions
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| Dementia | disease characterized by a progressive decline in cognitive abilities that typically strikes in later years. Memory decline and one more: apraxia, agnosia, aphasia, executive function impairment
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| Cortical dementia | atrophy of the cerebral cortex (alzheimers and frontotemporal
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| Subcortical dementia | degeneration of the basal ganglia. often vascular or multi-infarct. Huntington's disease
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| causes of dementia | build up of tau proteins causing cell death; primarily affects the temporal lobes, hippocampus. Genetics
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| Aphasia | Loss of language skills. Expressive-difficulty with speaking or writing. Receptive - difficulty understanding or reading
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| Dysarthria | motor speech deficits
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| Apraxia | motor planning deficits
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| cognitive-communicative disorders | thinking skills deficits (attention, memory, problem solving)
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| Wernicke's aphasia | Receptive aphasia - fluent sounding speech that is meaningless/not on topic. Damage due to the left posterior aspect of the superior temporal gyrus and surrounding areas
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| Broca's aphasia | non-fluent effortful/telegraphic speech. A stoke in the left hemisphere of the frontal region.
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| Conduction Aphasia | arcuate fasciculus. Difficulty repeating, literal substitutions
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| Global aphasia | damage to both Wernicke's and Broca's areas resulting in expressive and receptive deficits
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| Anomic aphasia | mildest of aphasias; difficulty with word retrieval (tip of tongue)
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| Motor speech lesions | Dysarthria (flaccid, spastic, ataxic, mixed) and Apraxia (SMA, insula, frontal/parietal lobes) can be oral (swallowing or non speech movements-can't stick out tongue) or Verbal (speech movements-can't do multisyllabic words)
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| cognition | attention, organization/sequencing, problem-solving, memory and higher level processing
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| executive functioning | attention, self-regulation, self-inhibition, self-awareness, insight into deficits, reasoning
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| pragmatics | social appropriateness - eye contact, verbosity, personal space, turn-taking
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| Right hemisphere dysfunction | impairments in attention and integration. Attention supports all other cognitive functions; significant L neglect
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| Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) | a progressive neurodegenerative syndrome resulting from multiple concussed episodes and characterized by an increase in tau protiens and resulting in early onset dementia, decreased emotional regulation, and depression
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| Locked in syndrome | a paralysis of voluntary muscles of the body while consciousness remains relatively unaffected. Caused by a lower brainstem injury
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| Telencephalon | cerebral hemispheres, basal ganglia, olfactory tracts, verntricles
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| Diencephalon | thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, optic tract, ventricles
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| Mesencephalon | mid brain
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| metencephalon | pons, cerebellum, ventricle
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| myelencephalon | medulla oblongata, ventricle
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