The blood and the heart
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| Secondary Polycythemia | body attempts to compensate for conditions that have caused the amount of oxygen in the blood to drop.
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| Polycythemia Vera | instance in which diseased marrow (such as from cancer) triggers over production of RBCs
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| polycythemia | state in which the body has an excess of RBCs
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| erythropoiesis | process of producing new erythrocytes that is also maintained through a negative feedback loop
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| lymphatic tissue | found in the spleen, lymph nodes , and thymus gland- supplement blood cell production by producing lymphocytes, a specific type of WBC
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| red bone marrow | found in the ends of long bones and in flat irregular bones such as the sternum, cranial bones, vertebrae, and pelvis- produces all types of blood cells
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| fibrinolysis | process of dissolution of a clot
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| hemolysis | destruction of red blood cells
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| universal recipient | type AB
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| universal donor blood | type O
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| Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia | most common form of leukemia in children and has highest cure rate. Treatment incl. chemotherapy, radiation and bone marrow transplants.
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| Myeloid leukemia | involves uncontrolled granulocyte production
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| lymphocytic leukemia | involves rapid proliferation of lymphocytes
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| chronic leukemia | proliferation of relatively mature but still abnormal WBCs, develops more slowly and occurs in most often in older people
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| Acute Leukemia | occurs most commonly in kids- appears suddenly and involves rapid increase of immature WBCs
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| leukemia | a cancer of the blood or bone marrow and is characterized by an extremely high WBC count
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| hemophilia | results from a deficiency of one of the clotting factors. A sex-linked recessive disorder that effects mostly males. People with hemophilia lack ability to form blood clots
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| treatment of hemophilia | treated with infusions of missing clotting factor
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| pernicious anemia | results from lack of vitamin b12
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| hemolytic anemia | when too many RBCs are being destroyed
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| anemia | deficiency of RBCs or hemoglobin. Results from not enough iron in the diet. Another cause is insufficient supply of EPO. usually accompanies kidney disease. Without enough RBCs or hemoglobin, oxygen carrying capacity of blood is diminished.
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| symptoms of anemia | fatigue, pallor, shortness of breath. Blood viscosity is also reduced. (faster heart rate and lower blood pressure )
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| symptoms of sickle cell disease | intense pain, kidney or heart failure, or stroke. Occurs mostly in people of African descent.
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| Sickle cell disease | inherited blood disorder involving hemoglobin.Affected RBCs are stiff rather than flexible,cant fold over like a normal RBC;shape distorted;cells elongate, ends point.The cells are also sticky causing them to clump together and block small blood vessels
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| treatment for Rh incompatibility | All Rh- women who become prego w/ Rh+ baby should be treated with Rh immune globulin(RhoGAM). RhoGAM prevents forming of anti-Rh antibodies,preventing attack on fetus' RBCs
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| 4th step Rh- mom pregnant with Rh+ fetus | if the mom later becomes pregnant with another Rh+ baby, anti- Rh antibodies can pass through the placenta even if RBCs cant, when they do,they attack fetal RBCs,causing agglutination & hemolysis.
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| erythroblastosis fetalis | when an infant develops a severe hemolytic anemia
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| 3rd step Rh- mom pregnant with Rh+ fetus | mother's body responds by forming anti- Rh antibodies against this foreign substance.
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| 2nd step Rh- mom pregnant with Rh+ fetus | However, during delivery (or miscarriage) the fetus' blood often mixes with that of the mother, thus introducing Rh antigens into the mother's bloodstream.
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| 1st step Rh- mom pregnant with Rh+ fetus | Because maternal and fetal blood doesnt mix, first pregnancy with an Rh+ fetus will proceed normally
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| 3rd step when Rh- person receives transfusion from a person with Rh+ blood | difficulty arises if recipient encounters Rh antigen again,such as through a subsequent infusion of Rh+ blood. if that occurs, anti-Rh antibodies that formed during 1st transfusion will attack the Rh antigen in the donor blood, causing agglutination
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| 2nd step when Rh- person receives transfusion from a person with Rh+ blood | to protect itself, the body develops antibodies against the Rh antigen (anti- Rh antibodies)
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| 1st step when Rh- person receives transfusion from a person with Rh+ blood | in the case of transfusion, if a person with Rh- blood receives a transfusion of Rh+ blood, recipients body interprets the Rh antigen as something foreign
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| Blood type O Antibodies | type o blood has both anti-A and anti-B antibodies
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| Blood type AB Antibodies | type AB blood has no antibodies
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| Blood type B Antibodies | type B blood has anti-A antibodies
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| Blood type A Antibodies | Type A blood has anti-B antibodies
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| antibodies | blood plasma carries these against the antigens of the other blood types
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| antigen | protein on the surface of each red blood cell
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| Blood type O antigens | type O blood have neither antigen
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| Blood type AB antigens | type AB blood have both A and B antigens
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| Blood type B antigens | type B blood have the B antigen
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| Blood type A antigens | type A blood have the A antigen on their RBCs
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| prothombrin activator | end result of both extrinsic and intrinsic pathways
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| hemostasis | stopping flow of blood. 1st event; vasuclar spasm, formation of a platelet plug and formation of a blood clot
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| platelets | express internal membranes proteins & release adhesive proteins, coagulation& growth factors, play an active role in inflammatory & proliferative events as well as role in tissue remodeling & wound healing
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| role of platelets in hemostasis | 1st through adhesive & cohesive functions that lead to formation of a hemostatic plug 2nd - can activate coagulation mechanisms, possess important secretory functions
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| sticky platelets | stick to the vessel wall and to each other, forming a mass of platelets called a platelet plug
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| macrophage | aggressive phagocytic cells that ingest bacteria, cellular debris and cancerous cells.
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| function of monocytes | highly phagocytic and can engulf large bacteria and viral infected cells.
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| characteristics of monocytes | largest of the WBCs
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| monocytes | largest and most long-lived of WBCs; highly phagocytic
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| structure of RBC | normal RBC is shaped like a disc with a sunken center. This shape gives cell large surface area through which oxygen and carbon dioxide readily diffuse
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| WBC | white blood cell also known as leukocytes. body's line of defense against invasion by infectious pathogens. All WBCs contain a nucleus. Body contains 5 types of WBCs
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| RBC | short for red blood cells, cells that carry oxygen and carbon dioxide through the blood. RBC also stands for red cell count , number of red blood cells in a given volume of blood
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| CBC | most commonly performed blood test (complete blood count)provides info about all the formed elements of the blood; RBCs (incll,hemoglobin, hematocrit and reticulocytes) WBCs (incl a differential) and platelets
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| t-pA | tissue plasminogen activator , one of the substances that stimulates the conversion of plasminogen into plasmin-can be admin, as a drug often given to dissolve clots causing strokes & heart attacks
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| coagulation | blood clotting
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| hemoglobin | iron-containing pigment of red blood cells that carries oxygen
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| function of RBC | charged with delivering oxygen to cells and removing carbon dioxide and are critical to survival. Blood contains more RBCs than any other formed element.
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| hematocrit | percentage of red blood cells in a sample of blood
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| buffy coat | narrow-buff colored band just underneath the plasma formed by WBCs and platelets. constitute 1% or less of blood volume
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| serum | plasma without the clotting proteins (which occurs when blood is allowed to clot and the solid portion is removed )
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| Albumin | main protein contained in plasma
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| plasma proteins | play roles in blood clotting, immune system and regulation of fluid volume
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| plasma | main component is water. also contains proteins, nutrients, electrolytes, hormones and gases
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| formed elements | include cells and cell fragments, makes up 45% of blood. Specific blood cells include erythrocytes (red blood cells, RBC) leukocytes (WBCs) and platelets
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| plasma | clear extracellular matrix of liquid connective tissue. Accounts for 55% of blood.
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| embolus | when a piece of the clot breaks off and circulates through the bloodstream
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| thrombus | blood clot, final product of blood coagulation, step in hemostasis. an unwanted blood clot inside of a vessel.
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| EPO | erythropoietin- hormone secreted by the kidneys that stimulates the production of erythrocytes
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| plasma | clear extracellular matrix of blood
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| eosinophils | white blood cells that protect against parasites, also involved in allergic reactions
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| function of neutrophils | mainly mobile, quickly migrate out of blodd vessels and into tissue spaces,, where they engulf and digest foreign materials. worn out neutrophils left at the site of infection form main component of pus
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| neutrophils | most abundant of the white blood cells; highly mobile
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| granulocytes | contain granules in the cytoplasm, also contain a single multilobular nucleus
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| functions of WBCs | body's line of defense against invasion by infectious pathogens
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| oxyhemoglobins | one hermoglobin united with four molecules of oxygen
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| heme | iron-containing molecule thats bound to each globin
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| globins | four ribbon-like protein chains that make up hemoglobins
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| hemoglobins | fills over 1/3 of the interior of a RBC and is a red pigment that gives blood its color
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| RBCs | lose almost all of their organelles during development because they lack a nucleus and DNA they cant replace themselves.
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| cytoskeleton of rbcs | contains stretchable fibers that make it flexible, allowing it to fold and stretchas it squeezes through tiny capillaries when cell emerges through a narrow vessel it springs back to its original shape
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| characteristics of neutrophils | nucleus of young neutrophil looks like a band of a stab; sometimes called band or stab cells
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| characteristics of neutrophils | also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) because the shape of nucleus varies between neutrophils
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| function of eosinophils | Eosinophils are involved in allergic reactions; they also kill parasites
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| characteristics of eosinophils | while few exist in the bloodstream, eosinophils are numerous in the lining of the respiratory and digestive tracts
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| basophils | fewest of WBCs; secretes heparin
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| characteristics of basophils | basophils possess little or no phagocytic ability
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| function of basophils | secrete heparin, which prevents clotting in infected areas so WBCs can enter, also secretes histamine, substance that causes blood vessels to leak, which attracts WBCs
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| agranulocytes | lack cytoplasmic granules ; nuclei also lack lobes
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| lymphocytes | second most numerous of WBCs; responsible for long- term immunity
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| characteristics of lymphocytes | smallest of the WBCs
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| function of lymphocytes | responsible for long term immunity . There are 2 types
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| T lymphocytes | directly attack an infected or cancerous cell
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| B lymphocytes | produce antibodies against specific antigens
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| Complete Blood Count | Measure volume of all blood components, measures blood components that are out of range
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| Differential WBC count | Count various forms of WBC to assess for infections and manufacture of WBC's.
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| Hematocrit | Counting the % of a blood sample that is composed of RBC's -diagnoses anemia
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| What are the causes and symptoms of sickle cell anemia? | RBC's contain an abnormal kind of hemoglobin, sickle cells rupture easily, prolonged oxygen reduction may eventually cause extensive tissue damage
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| What are the causes and symptoms of hemophilia? | inherited deficiency of clotting in which bleeding may occur spontaneously or after only minor trauma symptoms: intramuscular hemorrhaging, nosebleeds, blood in the urine, and hemorrhages in joints that produce pain and tissue damage
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| What are the causes and symptoms of leukemia? | accumulation of either mature or immature leukocytes because they don't die at the end of their normal life span
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| Reticulocyte | counting the volume of reticulocytes in a sample of blood -measures rate of erythropoesis
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| What happens in an incompatible blood transfusion? | antibodies in the recipient's plasma bind to the antigens on the donated RBC's and cause hemolysis and release hemoglobin into the plasma
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| What makes one blood group different from another? | the presence or absence of various isoantigens
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| How is type A blood different from type B? | RBC's that only have antigen A are Type A RBC's that only have antigen B are Type B
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| How is type AB blood different from Types A or B? | f you have both A and B antigens rather than just one
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| What does an anti-A antibody do? | reacts with antigen A
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| What does an anti-B antibody do? | reacts with antigen B
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| Who has an anti-A antibody? Who does not? | has=Type B not=Type A, AB, and O
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| Who had an anti-B antibody? Who does not? | has=Type A not=Type B, AB, and O
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| How does platelet plug formation aid in hemostasis? | platelets' characteristics change drastically and they quickly come together to form a platelet plug that helps fill the gap in the injured blood vessel wall
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| Role of B, T, and natural killer cells | B cells- develop into plasma cells and produce antibodies that help destroy bacteria T cells- attack viruses, fungi, transplanted cells, cancer cells, and some bacteria Natural killer cells- attack infectious microbes and tumor cells
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| treatment for occluded (already closed) coronary arteries | stent, CABG, angioplasty, beta blockers, calcium channel blockers
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| amygdale | *two almond shaped areas of brain that are key players in the formation and storage of memories associated with emotion.
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| amygdale | stimulation causes it to send impulses to the autonomic nervous system
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| ventricular fibrillation | electrical signals arising from diff. regions of myocardium,causes heart to quiver rather than contract.fibrillating heart cant pump blood, cardiac output plummets and arrest may follow. req. immediate defibrillation
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| atrial flutter | when an ectopic focus in an atria fires rapidly, causing atria to contract between 200 and 400 times per minute.
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| arrhythmia | results when part of conduction pathway is injured; irregular heartbeat
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| ischemia | lack of blood flow leading to lack of oxygen in an area of the myocardium
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| infarction | tissue death (necrosis) caused by a local lack of oxygen, due to an obstruction of the tissues blood supply.
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| angina | chest pain or discomfort that usually occurs with stress. also due to poor blood flow through the blood vessels in the heart
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| echocardiogram | test that uses sound waves to create the pictures of the heart. does not expose you to radiation
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| heart murmurs | abnormal sounds during your heartbeat cycle made by turbulent blood in or near your heart. can be heard with a stethoscope
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| valvular stenosis | condition in which valves been narrowed. also forces heart to work harder causing it to strain to pump blood through narrowed opening
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| valvular insufficiency | allows blood to leak backward into the chamber from which it was just pumped
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| tachycardia | persistent resting heart rate greater than 100 beats per minute (bpm)
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| bradycardia | persistent pulse rate slower than 60 bpm commonly occurs during sleep or in athletes
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| diastole | relaxation
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| systole | contraction
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| T wave | represents ventricular repolarization
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| ST segment | represents the end of ventricular depolarization and beginning of ventricular repolarization
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| QRS complex | represents ventricular depolarization; the spread of electrical impulses throughout the ventricles
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| PR interval | represents the time it takes for the cardiac impulse to travel from the atria to the ventricles
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| P Wave | represents atrial depolarization; transmission of electrical impulses from SA node through the atria. This occurs right before atria contract.
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| electrocardiogram | record of the electrical currents in the heart. an ECG that appears normal is called normal sinus rhythm meaning that the impulse originates in SA node.
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| coronary sinus | where most cardiac veins empty, large transverse vein on hearts posterior which returns blood to right atrium (exception is anterior cardiac veins, which empty directly into right atrium)
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| left coronary artery | branches into anterior descending & circumflex arteries supplies blood to left atrium, most of left ventricle & most of the interventricular septum
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| right coronary artery | supplies blood to right atrium, part of left atrium, most of right ventricle & inferior part of the left ventricle
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| coronary circulation | keeps heart well supplied with oxygenated blood Coronary arteries deliver oxygenated blood to myocardium, while cardiac veins collect deoxygenated blood
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| 2 main coronary arteries | right and left arise from ascending aorta and serve as principle routes for supplying blood to myocardium
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| mitral area | 5th intercostals space, left midclavicular line
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| tricuspid area | 4th (or 5th) intercostals space, left sternal border
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| pulmonic area | second intercostals space, left sternal border
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| aortic area | second intercostals space, right sternal border
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| interatrial septum | common wall of myocardium that separates right and left atria
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| atria | serve primarily as reservoirs,receiving blood from body or lungs. move blood only a short distance from atria to ventricles- they dont generate much force and walls are not very thick
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| great vessels | several large vessels that serve to transport blood to and from the heart; incl. superior and inferior vena, pulmonary artery, 4 pulmonary veins and aorta
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| epicardium | consists of a thin layer of squamous epithelial cells, covers the hearts surface
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| myocardium | composed of cardiac muscle, forms the middle layer. Thickest of the 3 layers and performs the work of the heart
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| endocardium | lines the hearts chambers,covers the valves, cont. into vessels, consists of a thin layer of squamous epithelial cells. this smooth tissue helps prevent clots from forming
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| pericardial cavity | located between parietal and visceral layers. contains a small amount of serous fluid, which helps prevent friction as the heart beats
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| visceral layer | covers the hearts surface
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| parietal layer | lines inside of the fibrous pericardium
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| serous pericardium | covers hearts surface and has two layers
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| fibrous pericardium | loose- fitting sac of strong connective tissue- outermost layer of pericardium
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| pericardium | double walled sac surrounding heart. anchored by ligaments and tissues to surrounding structures
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| apex | point of maximum impulse, where strongest beat can be felt or heard
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| base | where the great vessels enter and leave the heart
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| angioplasty | if a narrowed or blocked coronary artery is found, a balloon's inflated briefly to open the artery
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| coronary artery bypass grafts (CABG) | recommended when a patient has had a mild MI, or is at risk for having an MI. Also referred to as open heart surgery-sternum is split, chest is opened. hearts stopped for surgery but patients kept alive using a heart-lung machine
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| incompetent | heart valve that fails to prevent the back-flow of blood during contraction
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| congestive heart failure (CHF) | results when either ventricle fails to pump blood effectively, can occur because ventricle is weakened from myocardial infarction
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| premature ventricular contractions (PVCs) | may occur as a single beat or in bursts of several beats-results from a firing of an ectopic focus in ventricles, may indicate a serious underlying cond. ;more benign causes of PVCs incl; lack of sleep, caffeine or emotional stress
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| necrosis | cell death due to interruption in blood supply
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| symptoms of myocardial infarction | men:commonly experience chest pain or pressure, discomfort in upper body, shortness of breath, nausea, profuse sweating or anxiety. Women: sudden extreme fatigue, abdominal pain ("heartburn"_ dizziness or weakness
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| myocardial infarction (MI) | blood flow is completely blocked by a blood clot or fatty deposit resulting in death of myocardial cells in area fed by artery. once cells die produces area of necrosis
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| mediastinum | space between the lungs and beneath the sternum
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| aortic valve | prevents backflow from aorta to left ventricle
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| pulmonary valve | prevents back flow from pulmonary artery to right ventricle
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| semilunar valves | regulate flow between the ventricles and the great arteries; 2 semilunar valves
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| cusps or leaflets | `two or three flaps of tissues that form valves
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| the heart valves | ensures that blood moves in a forward direction through the heart
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| interventricular septum | separates right and left ventricles
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| ventricles | serve as pumps,rcving. blood from atria & then pumping it either to lungs (R) or body (L) must generate more force than atria.walls are thicker and L walls thicker than R since left ventricle must generate enough force to push blood throughout the body
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| Pathway of Blood Through the Heart | superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, right atrium, tricuspid valve, right ventricle, pulmonary artery, lung capillaries, pulmonary vein, left atrium, mitral valve, left ventricle, aorta
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