Anatomy & Physiology
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| purpose of bones in the skeleton | support soft tissues, protect vital organs, bear body's weight and help us move
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| facts about bones in the skeleton | 206 named bones in the adult, and they differ in size, shape, and weight
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| skeletal system is divided into two regions called... | axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton
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| characteristics of the axial skeleton | composed of bones along central body axis (skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage), and has spongy bone containing hemopoietic tissue
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| hemopoietic | related to the process of formation and development of the various types of blood cells
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| purpose of the axial skeleton | creates the framework that supports and protects organs
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| characteristics of the appendicular skeleton | includes bones of upper and lower limbs, includes girdles of bones attaching limbs to axial skeleton such as the pectoral girdle and the pelvic girdle
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| purpose of the pelvic girdle | hold the lower limbs in place
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| purpose of the pectoral girdle | hold the upper limbs in place
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| bone markings are... | surface features that characterize each bone
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| bone markings can include... | projections (where muscles, tendons, and ligaments attach), smooth areas (sites of articulation between bones), and depressions, grooves, and openings (where blood vessels and nerves travel)
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| canal | passageway through a bone
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| condyle | large, smooth, rounded articulating oval structure
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| facet | small, flat, shallow articulating surface
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| head | prominent, rounded epiphysis
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| trochlea | smooth, grooved, pulley-like articular process
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| articulating surfaces include... | condyles, facets, heads, and trochlea
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| depressions include... | alveolus (pl. alveoli), fossa (pl. fossae), and sulcus
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| projections for tendon and ligament attachment include... | crest, epicondyle, line, process, ramus (pl. rami), spine, trochanter, tubercle, and tuberosity
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| openings and spaces include... | canal, fissure, foramen (pl. foramina), meatus, and sinus
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| fissure | narrow, slitlike opening through a bone
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| foramen | rounded passageway through a bone
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| meatus | passageway through a bone
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| sinus | cavity or hollow space in a bone
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| crest | narrow, prominent, ridge-like projection
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| epicondyle | projection adjacent to a condyle
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| line | low ridge
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| process | any marked bony prominence
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| ramus | angular extension of a bone relative to the rest of the structure
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| spine | pointed, slender process
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| trochanter | massive, rough projection found only on the femur
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| tubercle | small, round projection
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| tuberosity | large, rough projection
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| alveolus | deep pit or socket in the maxillae or mandible
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| fossa | flattened or shallow depression
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| sulcus | narrow groove
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| skull is... | the most complex structure in the skeleton as it is comprised of 22 bones and contains cranial and facial bones
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| two sets of bones in the skull are... | cranial bones and facial bones
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| cranial bones | enclose the brain in the cranial cavity and provide sites of attachment for head and neck muscles (dome of skull)
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| facial bones | provide the framework for the face, contains cavities for special sense organs (i.e. sight, taste, and smell), has openings for food and air passage, and provides sites of attachment for teeth and muscles of facial expression
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| cranial bones include... | frontal bones, parietal bones (2), occipital bone, and temporal bones (2)
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| facial bones include... | mandible, maxillary bones (2), zygomatic bones (2), nasal bones (2), lacrimal bones (2), palatine bones (2), vomer, ethmoid bone, and sphenoid bone
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| mandible | lower jaw, strongest bone of the face, and has the temporomandibular joint
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| maxillary bone | medially fused to form upper jaw (above teeth, but below nose) and central portion of the facial skeleton
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| zygomatic bones | cheekbones (right under eye)
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| nasal bones | form bridge of nose (part you can't move left and right)
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| vomer | amid the cartilage of the nose and separates the left and right nasal cavities
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| TMJ (temporomandibular joint) | only freely movable part of the skull
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| lacrimal bones | in medial walls of orbits (posterior to nasal bone)
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| palatine bones | roof of the mouth (palate = roof of mouth)
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| ethmoid | separates nasal cavity from brain
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| sphenoid | behind orbits of eye in frontal plane (looks like batman)
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| hyoid bone | sesamoid bone (floating bone - does not articulate with any other bone) (forms attachment sites for tongue and larynx muscles and ligaments) that is slender and curved; inferior to the skull between the mandible and the larynx
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| purpose of the vertebral column | transmits weight of trunk to lower limbs, provides vertical support for the body, supports the weight of the head, helps maintain an upright body position, shock absorber, surrounds and protects spinal cord, and movement
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| the spine is curved to... | help absorb shock (slouching promotes bad muscle alignment along spine)
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| flexion | bending forward
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| extension | bending backward
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| rotation | twisting
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| flexion to left and right | bending toward right or left
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| the vertebral column is composed of... | 7 cervical vertebrae, 12 thoracic vertebrae, 5 lumbar vertebrae, 5 sacrum (fused), and 3-5 coccyx (fused)
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| common structural features of the spine | body, vertebral foramen, vertebral canal, spinous process, and transverse processes
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| body | thick, anterior weight-bearing structure
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| vertebral canal | formed by stacked vertebral foramina that contains the spinal cord
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| vertebral foramen | opening enclosed by body with vertebral arch
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| spinous process | projecting posteriorily from laiminae junction
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| transverse processes | lateral projection on both sides of vertebral arch
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| cervical vertebrae | seven vertebrae that form bones of the neck (C1-C7) (most superiorly place vertebrae) and support only the weight of the head; they are relatively small and light (C7 articulates with the first thoracic vertebra)
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| Atlas | C1 (articulates with the occipital condyles) and is the topmost vertebrae (hold the base of the skull and has no vertebral body)
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| atlanto-occipital joint | joint that includes the atlas and allows nodding
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| Axis | C2 (second cervical vertebrae) is characterized by the dens and is associated witht he atlantoaxial joint
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| dens | acts as a pivot for lateral rotation between atlas and skull
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| atlantoaxial joint | between the axis and atlas and permits the shaking of the head "no"
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| thoracic vertebrae | form superior region of the back and each vertebrae articulates laterally with one or two pairs of ribs (12 vertebrae T1 - T12) (T12 articulates with the first lumbar vertebra)
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| lumbar vertebrae | largest vertebrae with thick, oval bodies; bear most of the weight of the body and form inferior concave region ("small" of the back); 5 vertebrae (L1 - L5) and the L5 articulates inferiorly with the first sacral vertebra
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| sacrum | formed from five sacral vertebrae that are fused into a single structure by the late 20s; (S1 - S5) articulates with the L5 superiorly and the first coccygeal vertebra inferiorly (laterally articulates with two hip bones)
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| coccyx | commonly called the "tailbone" and is 3-5 fused coccygeal vertebrae (Co1 - Co5); Co1 articulates with inferior end of sacrum; may fuse to sacrum (begins around age 25); is the attachment site for several ligaments and muscles
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| purpose of intervertebral discs | are pads of fibrocartilage separating vertebral bodies, act as shock absorbers, and allows vertebral column to bend
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| anatomy of intervertebral discs | 90% water and composed of an annulus fibrosus and a nucleus pulposus
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| annulus fibrosus | outer ring of fibrocartilage
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| nucleus pulposus | jelly-like substance inside the annulus fibrosus that absorbs compression
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| thoracic cage (rib cage) | bony framework of the chest that acts as a protective enclosure around thoracic organs and provides attachment sites for many muscles
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| thoracic cage consists of... | thoracic vertebrae posteriorly, ribs laterally, and sternum anteriorly
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| bones of the thorax include... | manubrium, sternum, xiphoid process, and 12 pairs of ribs (7 true ribs, 5 false ribs [2 floating ribs])
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| manubrium | widest and most superior portion of sternum that has clavicular notches and costal notches
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| clavicular notch | articulates sternum with left and right clavicles
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| costa notch | articulations for first ribs' costal cartilages
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| sternum body | longest part of the sternum and costal cartilages from ribs 2-7 attach here
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| xiphoid process | at the tip of the sternum and doesn't ossify until age 40 (don't break this during CPR... it could puncture the rib if it breaks off)
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| costal cartilage | connects bone to sternum
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| true ribs | ribs 1-7; connect directly to the sternum by costal cartilage
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| false ribs | ribs 8-12; costal cartilages not attached directly to the sternum (ribs 8-10 are fused to costal cartilage of rib 7 and indirectly attached to the sternum and ribs 11-12 do not connect to the sternum and are called floating ribs)
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| pectoral (shoulder) girdle | articulates with the trunk, supports the upper limbs, and consists of the clavicles and the scapulae
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| the clavicle | commonly known as the collarbone, it is an elongated S-shaped bone that extends between manubrium and acromion of the scapula
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| the clavicle is S-shaped because | it can help with movement and can withstand different kinds of forces and can absorb shock
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| sternal end of the clavicle | articulates with the manubrium and forms the sternoclavicular joint
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| acromial end | articulates with the acromion of the scapula and forms the acromioclavicular join
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| scapula | broad, flat, triangular bone that forms the "shoulder blad" and is easily palpated on superolateral back region
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| borders of the scapula | superior border, medial border, and lateral border
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| superior border of the scapula | horizontal edge superior to scapula spine
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| medial border of the scapula | edge closest to the vertebrae
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| lateral border of the scapula | edge close to the axilla
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| angles of the scapula | superior angle, inferior angle, and lateral angle
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| superior angle of the scapula | between superior and medial borders
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| inferior angle of the scapula | between medial and lateral borders
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| later angle of the scapula | primarily made up of the glenoid cavity
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| glenoid cavity | cup-shaped, shallow that articulates with humerus
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| parts of the scapula | spine, acromion process, and coracoid process
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| spine | ridge of bone on posterior aspect of the scapula (can touch above and below)
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| acromion process | large posterior process forming shoulder's bony tip that is continuous with the spine (at the end of the spine (you can feel it))
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| coracoid process | smaller, more anterior projection that is a site for muscle attachment
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| scapular fossa | subscapular fossa, supraspinous fossa, and the infraspinous fossa
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| subscapular fossa | broad, anterior surface of the scapula (the subscapularis muscle is here)
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| supraspinous fossa | depression superior to the spine (the supraspinatus muscle is here)
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| infraspinous fossa | inferior to the spine (the infraspinatus muscle is here)
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| bones of the upper limb | 1 humerus, 1 radius, and 1 ulna, 8 carpal bones, 5 metacarpal bones, and 14 phalanges
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| humerus | longest and largest upper limb bone and forms elbow join with bones from the radius and ulna
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| components of the humerus | proximal end w/ a hemispherical head (articulates w/ glenoid cavity) [greater tubercle, lesser tubercle, bicipital groove (intertubercular sulcus), & the shaft], and a distal end with two curved surfaces [medial & lateral epicondyles & the trochlea]
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| greater tubercle | positioned lateral to the head and helps form rounded contour of the shoulder
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| lesser tubercle | smaller and more medial to the head
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| bicipital groove (intertubercular sulcus) | between two tubercles and is the depression containing tendon of long head of biceps brachii muscle
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| medial and lateral epicondyles | bony side projections on distal humerus that can be palpated on the sides of the elbow
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| trochlea | articulates with the trochlear notch of the ulna
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| the forearm is composed of... | the radius and the ulna (parallel bones, the radius is more lateral and the ulna is longer) [ulna is more prominent at elbow and radius is more prominent at the wrist]
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| components of the radius | disc-shaped head at the proximal end, radial tuberosity, the shaft (curves slightly), and the styloid process
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| head of the radius | articulates with the capitulum of the humerus
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| radial tuberosity | attachment site for biceps brachii
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| styloid process of the humerus | bony projection at the distal end of the radius
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| components of the ulna | U-shaped trochlear notch at the proximal end and the olecranon process
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| trochlear notch | interlocks with trocklea of the humerus
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| olecranon process | projection on posterosuperior trochlear notch that forms posterior "bump" of the elbow
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| borders between the radius and ulna | connected by an interosseous membrane
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| interosseous membrane | composed of dense regular, connective tissue and helps keep radius and ulna a fixed distance apart (so they don't come together and grind) and provides a pivot of rotation for the forearm
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| supination | in anatomic position with the palm of the hand facing anteriorly, the radius and ulna parallel (radius on the lateral side of the forearm and ulna on the medial side)
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| pronation | radius and ulna pivot along the interosseous membrane and the palm of the hand faces posteriorly (the head of the radius is still on the lateral side of the forearm, but the distal end of the radius has crossed over)
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| carpals | bones that form the wrist and allow for multiple movements of the wrist (arranged in two rows of four bones each)
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| proximal carpal row from lateral to medial | scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, pisiform
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| distal carpal row from lateral to medial | trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, and hamate
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| metacarpals | bones in the palm of the hand that articulate with distal carpal bones and support the palm
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| phalanges | in sets of three excluding the thumb and are named by number and proximal, middle and distal
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| pelvis | composed of four bones (sacrum, coccyx, right and left hip (ossa coxae)
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| pelvic girdle | refers to the left and right ossa coxae only as they articulate with the trunk and provide attachment points for lower limbs
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| difference between shoulder joint and hip joint... | the shoulders and move independently of each other and the hips are not independent of one another
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| os coxae | commonly referred to as the hip bone and is formed from three bones (ilium, ischium, and the pubis)
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| os coxae fuse when... | between ages 13 and 15
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| os coxae | articulates with the femur at the acetabulum (C-shaped smooth surface on acetabulum fossa articulates with the femoral head)
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| acetabulum | deep, curved depression on the lateral side of the os coxae where three bones have fused
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| ilium | has the iliac crest, iliac fossa, Anterior superior iliac spine (ASIS) [lots of muscles attach at the ASIS] and Posterior superior iliac spine (PSIS) [back dimples]
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| iliac crest | the superiormost ridge of the ilium
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| iliac fossa | flat face on the medial aspect of the ilum
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| ischium | composed of the ischial tuberosity and the ischial ramus
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| ischial tuberosity | bears weight of the body in sitting position and the hamstrings attach here
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| ischial ramus | extends from ischial tuberosity toward fusion with pubis
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| pubis | composed of the inferior pubic ramus, the superior pubic ramus, and the obturator foramen
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| obturator foramen | space in os coxae that is encircledby pubic and ischial rami
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| shoulder dislocations are more common than hip dislocations because... | the femur fits better into the acetabulum fossa than the shoulder fits into the glennoid fossa
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| bones of the lower limb | 1 femur, 1 patella, 1 tibia and 1 fibula, 7 tarsal bones, 5 metatarsal bones, and 14 phalanges
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| femur | longest, heaviest, strongest bone int he bone
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| components of the femur | spherical head, elongated neck that joins the shaft of the femur at an angle, the greater trochanter and lesser trochanter, the linea aspera, the medial and lateral condyles, and the patellar surface
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| head of the femur | articulates with os coxae at the acetabulum
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| linea aspear | posterior aspect of the shaft of the femur
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| patellar surface | smooth depression on anterior surface where patella articulates with the femur
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| patella | aka the kneecap, is a large, triangular sesamoid bone that allows the tendon to glide more smoothly (the superior part is the base and the inferior, pointed part is the apex)
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| articular surface of the posterior aspect of the patella | articules with patella surface of the femur
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| components of the tibia | medial and lateral condyles, tibial tuberosity, anterior border, and medial malleolus (ankle bone)
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| medial and lateral condyles | relatively flat surfaces on superior head of the tibia that articulate with medial and lateral condyles of the femur
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| tibial tuberosity | anterior surface near proximal condyles that form the attachment site for the patellar ligament
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| anterior border | often referred to as the shin that forms the ridge extending distally along the anterior tibial surface
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| medial mallelous | large process on medial, distal border that can be palpated on the side of the ankle
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| fibula | does not articulate with the femur, but is a long, lateral, non-weight-bearing bone
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| components of the fibula | knoblike head that is inferior and posterior to tibia's lateral condyle, a distal tip (lateral malleolus - palpate on lateral side of the ankle)
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| connection between tibia and fibula | interroseous membrane (stabilizes relative positions of tibia and fibula and provides pivot of minimal rotation for the bones
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| tarsals | 7 bones of the ankle and proximal foot
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| tarsal bones include... | talus, calcaneous, navicular bone, medial, intermediate and lateral cuneiform bones, and the cuboid bone
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| talus | superiormost and second largest tarsal bone that articulates with the tibia
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| calcaneous | largest tarsal bone, forms the heel (posterior end with projection for attachment of calcaneal tendon)
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| navicular bone | on the medial side of the ankle
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| cuneiform bones | wedge-shaped bones that are positioned anterior to navicular bone
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| cubiod bone | laterally placed and articulates with lateral cuneiform medially and calcaneous posteriorly
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| metatarsals | form arched sole of foot and articulates proximally with cuneiform bones or cuboid bones, and each articulates distally with a proximal phalanx
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| phalanges of the foot | bones of the toes; the hallux only has two, and the rest have 3 (characterized by number and proximal, middle, and distal)
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| pollux | thumb
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