Sociology Midterm
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| Sociology | The scientific study of social behavior and human groups
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| Sociological Imagination | An awareness of the relationship between an individual and the wider society, both today and in the past
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| Science | The body of knowledge obtained by methods based on systematic observation
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| Psychology | The scientific study of the human mind and its functions, esp. those affecting behavior in a given context.
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| Theory | A set of statements that seeks to explain problems, actions, or behavior
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| Manifest function | An open, stated, and conscious function
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| Latent function | An unconscious or unintended function; hidden purpose
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| Operational definition | An explanation of an abstract concept that is specific enough to allow a researcher to assess the concept
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| Hypothesis | A speculative statement about the relationship between two or more variables
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| Variable | A measurable trait or characteristic that is subject to change under different conditions
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| Independent Variable | The variable in a casual relationship that, when altered, causes or influences a change in a second variable
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| Dependent Variable | The variable in a casual relationship that is subject to the influence of another variable
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| Correlation | A relationship between two variables in which a change in one coincides with a change in the other
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| Random sample | A sample for which every member of the entire population has the same chance of being selected
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| Sample | A selection from a larger population that is statistically representative of that population
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| Control variable | A factor held constant to test the relative impact of an independent variable
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| Reliability | The extent to which a measure produces consistent results
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| Validity | The degree to which a measure or scale truly reflects the phenomenon under study
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| Research design | A detailed plan or method for obtaining data scientifically
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| Interview | A face-to-face or telephone questioning of a respondent to obtain desired information
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| Qualitative research | Research that relies more on what scientists see in the field or in naturalistic settings than on statistical data
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| Quantitative research | Research that collects and reports data primarily in numerical form
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| Questionnaire | A printed or written form used to obtain information from a respondent
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| Ethnography | The study of an entire social setting through extended systematic observation
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| Experimental group | Subjects in an experiment who are exposed to an independent variable introduced by a researcher
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| Control group | Subjects in an experiment who are not introduced to the independent variable by the researcher
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| Secondary analysis | A variety of research techniques that make use of previously collected and publicly accessible information and data
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| Nonreactive research | Also called unobtrusive; indirect ways to find data
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| Content analysis | The systematic coding and objective recording of data, guided by some rationale
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| Socialization | The process through which people learn the attitudes, values, and behaviors appropriate for members of a particular culture
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| Culture | The totality of learned, socially transmitted customs, knowledge, material objects, and behavior
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| Society | A fairly large number of people who live in the same territory, are relatively independent of people outside it, and participate in a common culture
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| Innovation | The process of introducing a new idea or object to a culture through discovery or invention
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| Discovery | The process of making known or sharing the existence of some aspect of reality
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| Invention | The combination of existing cultural items into a form that did not exist before
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| Diffusion | The process by which a cultural item spreads from group to group of society to society
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| Material culture | The physical or technological aspects of our daily lives
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| Nonmaterial culture | Customs, beliefs, philosophies, governments, and patterns of communication, as well as ways of using material objects
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| Culture lag | William F. Ogburn's term for the period of maladjustment when the nonmaterial culture is still struggling to adapt to new material conditions
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| Language | An abstract system of word meanings and symbols for all aspects of culture; includes gestures and other nonverbal communication
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| Norm | An established standard of behavior maintained by a society
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| Law | Government social control
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| Folkway | A norm governing everyday behavior whose violation raises comparatively little concern
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| Mores | Norms deemed highly necessary to the welfare of society
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| Value | A collective conception of what is considered good, desirable, and proper - or bad, undesirable, and improper - in a culture
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| Subculture | A segment of society that shares a distinctive pattern of customs, rules, and traditions that differs from the pattern of the larger society
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| Argot | Specialized language used by members of a subculture
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| Countercultures | A subculture that conspicuously and deliberately opposes certain aspects of the larger culture
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| Ethnocentrism | The tendency to assume that one's own culture and way of life represent the norm or are superior to others
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| Cultural relativism | The evaluation of a people's behavior from the perspective of their own culture
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| Sociobiology | The systematic study of how biology affects human social behavior
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| Self | According to George Herbert Meade, a distinct identity that sets one apart from others
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| Looking-glass self | A concept used by Charles Horton Cooley to emphasize that the self is the product of our social interactions with other people
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| Role-taking | The process of mentally assuming the perspective of another in order to respond from that imagined viewpoint
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| Generalized other | A term used by George Herbert Meade to refer to the attitudes, viewpoints, and expectations of society as a whole that a child takes into account in his or her behavior
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| Dramaturgical approach | A view of social interaction popularized by Erving Goffman that examines people as if they were theatrical performers
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| Impression management | A term used by Erving Goffman to refer to the altering of the presentation of the self in order to create distinctive appearances and satisfy particular audiences
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| Life-course approach | A research orientation in which sociologists and other scientists look closely at the social factors that influence people throughout their lives, from birth to death
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| Resocialization | The process of discarding former behavior patterns and accepting new ones as part of a transition in one's life
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| Social control | Techniques and strategies for preventing deviant behavior in any society
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| Conformity | Going along with peers - individuals of our own status, who have no special right to direct our behavior
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| Obedience | Compliance with higher authorities in a hierarchical structure
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| Deviance | Behavior that violates the standards of conduct or expectations of a group or society
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| Anomie | Emile Durkheim's term for the loss of direction felt in a society when social control of individual behavior has become ineffective
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| Differential association | A theory of deviance proposed by Edwin Sutherland that holds that violation of rules results from exposure to attitudes favorable to criminal acts
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| Crime | A violation of criminal law for which some governmental authority applies formal penalties
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| Professional criminal | A person who pursues crime as a day-to-day occupation
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| Social inequality | A condition in which members of a society enjoy different amounts of wealth, prestige, or power
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| Stratification | The structured ranking of entire groups of people that perpetuates unequal economic rewards and power in a society
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| Income | Salaries and wages
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| Wealth | An inclusive term encompassing all a person's material assets, including land, stocks, and other property
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| Achieved status | A social position attained by a person largely through his or her own efforts
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| Ascribed status | A social position that is assigned to a person by society without regard for the person's unique talents or characteristics
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| Caste | A hereditary system of rank, usually religiously dictated, that tends to be fixed and immobile
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| Estate system/feudalism | A system of stratification under which peasants were required to work land leased to them by nobles in exchange for military protection and other services
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| Class system | A social ranking based primarily on economic position in which achieved characteristics can influence social mobility
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| Bourgeoisie | Karl Marx's term for the capitalist class, or the owners of the means of production
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| Capitalism | An economic system in which the means of production are held largely in private hands, and the main incentive for economic activity is the accumulation of profits
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| Proletariat | Karl Marx's term for the working class in a capitalist society
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| Class | A term used by Max Weber to refer to a group of people who have a similar level of wealth and income
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| False consciousness | A term used by Karl Marx to describe an attitude held by members of a class that does not accurately reflect its objective position
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| Absolute poverty | A standard of poverty based on a minimum level of subsistence that no family should be expected to live below
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| Relative poverty | A floating standard of deprivation by which people at the bottom of a society, whatever their lifestyles, are judged to be disadvantaged in comparison with the nation as a whole
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| Feminization of poverty | A trend in which women constitute an increasing proportion of the poor people of the United States
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| Closed system | A social system in which there is little or no possibility of individual mobility
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| Open system | A social system in which the position of each individual is influenced by his or her achieved status
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| Social mobility | The movement of individuals or groups from one position in a society's stratification system to another
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| Colonialism | The maintenance of political, social, economic, and cultural domination over a people by a foreign power for an extended period
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| Neocolonialism | Continuing dependence of former colonies on foreign countries
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| Dependency Theory | An approach to global stratification that contends that industrialized nations exploit developing countries for their own gain
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| Globalization | The worldwide integration of government policies, cultures, social movements, and financial markets through trade and the exchange of ideas
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| Modernization | The far-reaching process through which developing nations move from traditional or less developed institutions to those characteristic of more developed societies
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| Modernization theory | The functionalist view that modernization and development will gradually improve the lives of people in developing countries
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