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Sociology Midterm
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Sociology | The scientific study of social behavior and human groups |
| Sociological Imagination | An awareness of the relationship between an individual and the wider society, both today and in the past |
| Science | The body of knowledge obtained by methods based on systematic observation |
| Psychology | The scientific study of the human mind and its functions, esp. those affecting behavior in a given context. |
| Theory | A set of statements that seeks to explain problems, actions, or behavior |
| Manifest function | An open, stated, and conscious function |
| Latent function | An unconscious or unintended function; hidden purpose |
| Operational definition | An explanation of an abstract concept that is specific enough to allow a researcher to assess the concept |
| Hypothesis | A speculative statement about the relationship between two or more variables |
| Variable | A measurable trait or characteristic that is subject to change under different conditions |
| Independent Variable | The variable in a casual relationship that, when altered, causes or influences a change in a second variable |
| Dependent Variable | The variable in a casual relationship that is subject to the influence of another variable |
| Correlation | A relationship between two variables in which a change in one coincides with a change in the other |
| Random sample | A sample for which every member of the entire population has the same chance of being selected |
| Sample | A selection from a larger population that is statistically representative of that population |
| Control variable | A factor held constant to test the relative impact of an independent variable |
| Reliability | The extent to which a measure produces consistent results |
| Validity | The degree to which a measure or scale truly reflects the phenomenon under study |
| Research design | A detailed plan or method for obtaining data scientifically |
| Interview | A face-to-face or telephone questioning of a respondent to obtain desired information |
| Qualitative research | Research that relies more on what scientists see in the field or in naturalistic settings than on statistical data |
| Quantitative research | Research that collects and reports data primarily in numerical form |
| Questionnaire | A printed or written form used to obtain information from a respondent |
| Ethnography | The study of an entire social setting through extended systematic observation |
| Experimental group | Subjects in an experiment who are exposed to an independent variable introduced by a researcher |
| Control group | Subjects in an experiment who are not introduced to the independent variable by the researcher |
| Secondary analysis | A variety of research techniques that make use of previously collected and publicly accessible information and data |
| Nonreactive research | Also called unobtrusive; indirect ways to find data |
| Content analysis | The systematic coding and objective recording of data, guided by some rationale |
| Socialization | The process through which people learn the attitudes, values, and behaviors appropriate for members of a particular culture |
| Culture | The totality of learned, socially transmitted customs, knowledge, material objects, and behavior |
| Society | A fairly large number of people who live in the same territory, are relatively independent of people outside it, and participate in a common culture |
| Innovation | The process of introducing a new idea or object to a culture through discovery or invention |
| Discovery | The process of making known or sharing the existence of some aspect of reality |
| Invention | The combination of existing cultural items into a form that did not exist before |
| Diffusion | The process by which a cultural item spreads from group to group of society to society |
| Material culture | The physical or technological aspects of our daily lives |
| Nonmaterial culture | Customs, beliefs, philosophies, governments, and patterns of communication, as well as ways of using material objects |
| Culture lag | William F. Ogburn's term for the period of maladjustment when the nonmaterial culture is still struggling to adapt to new material conditions |
| Language | An abstract system of word meanings and symbols for all aspects of culture; includes gestures and other nonverbal communication |
| Norm | An established standard of behavior maintained by a society |
| Law | Government social control |
| Folkway | A norm governing everyday behavior whose violation raises comparatively little concern |
| Mores | Norms deemed highly necessary to the welfare of society |
| Value | A collective conception of what is considered good, desirable, and proper - or bad, undesirable, and improper - in a culture |
| Subculture | A segment of society that shares a distinctive pattern of customs, rules, and traditions that differs from the pattern of the larger society |
| Argot | Specialized language used by members of a subculture |
| Countercultures | A subculture that conspicuously and deliberately opposes certain aspects of the larger culture |
| Ethnocentrism | The tendency to assume that one's own culture and way of life represent the norm or are superior to others |
| Cultural relativism | The evaluation of a people's behavior from the perspective of their own culture |
| Sociobiology | The systematic study of how biology affects human social behavior |
| Self | According to George Herbert Meade, a distinct identity that sets one apart from others |
| Looking-glass self | A concept used by Charles Horton Cooley to emphasize that the self is the product of our social interactions with other people |
| Role-taking | The process of mentally assuming the perspective of another in order to respond from that imagined viewpoint |
| Generalized other | A term used by George Herbert Meade to refer to the attitudes, viewpoints, and expectations of society as a whole that a child takes into account in his or her behavior |
| Dramaturgical approach | A view of social interaction popularized by Erving Goffman that examines people as if they were theatrical performers |
| Impression management | A term used by Erving Goffman to refer to the altering of the presentation of the self in order to create distinctive appearances and satisfy particular audiences |
| Life-course approach | A research orientation in which sociologists and other scientists look closely at the social factors that influence people throughout their lives, from birth to death |
| Resocialization | The process of discarding former behavior patterns and accepting new ones as part of a transition in one's life |
| Social control | Techniques and strategies for preventing deviant behavior in any society |
| Conformity | Going along with peers - individuals of our own status, who have no special right to direct our behavior |
| Obedience | Compliance with higher authorities in a hierarchical structure |
| Deviance | Behavior that violates the standards of conduct or expectations of a group or society |
| Anomie | Emile Durkheim's term for the loss of direction felt in a society when social control of individual behavior has become ineffective |
| Differential association | A theory of deviance proposed by Edwin Sutherland that holds that violation of rules results from exposure to attitudes favorable to criminal acts |
| Crime | A violation of criminal law for which some governmental authority applies formal penalties |
| Professional criminal | A person who pursues crime as a day-to-day occupation |
| Social inequality | A condition in which members of a society enjoy different amounts of wealth, prestige, or power |
| Stratification | The structured ranking of entire groups of people that perpetuates unequal economic rewards and power in a society |
| Income | Salaries and wages |
| Wealth | An inclusive term encompassing all a person's material assets, including land, stocks, and other property |
| Achieved status | A social position attained by a person largely through his or her own efforts |
| Ascribed status | A social position that is assigned to a person by society without regard for the person's unique talents or characteristics |
| Caste | A hereditary system of rank, usually religiously dictated, that tends to be fixed and immobile |
| Estate system/feudalism | A system of stratification under which peasants were required to work land leased to them by nobles in exchange for military protection and other services |
| Class system | A social ranking based primarily on economic position in which achieved characteristics can influence social mobility |
| Bourgeoisie | Karl Marx's term for the capitalist class, or the owners of the means of production |
| Capitalism | An economic system in which the means of production are held largely in private hands, and the main incentive for economic activity is the accumulation of profits |
| Proletariat | Karl Marx's term for the working class in a capitalist society |
| Class | A term used by Max Weber to refer to a group of people who have a similar level of wealth and income |
| False consciousness | A term used by Karl Marx to describe an attitude held by members of a class that does not accurately reflect its objective position |
| Absolute poverty | A standard of poverty based on a minimum level of subsistence that no family should be expected to live below |
| Relative poverty | A floating standard of deprivation by which people at the bottom of a society, whatever their lifestyles, are judged to be disadvantaged in comparison with the nation as a whole |
| Feminization of poverty | A trend in which women constitute an increasing proportion of the poor people of the United States |
| Closed system | A social system in which there is little or no possibility of individual mobility |
| Open system | A social system in which the position of each individual is influenced by his or her achieved status |
| Social mobility | The movement of individuals or groups from one position in a society's stratification system to another |
| Colonialism | The maintenance of political, social, economic, and cultural domination over a people by a foreign power for an extended period |
| Neocolonialism | Continuing dependence of former colonies on foreign countries |
| Dependency Theory | An approach to global stratification that contends that industrialized nations exploit developing countries for their own gain |
| Globalization | The worldwide integration of government policies, cultures, social movements, and financial markets through trade and the exchange of ideas |
| Modernization | The far-reaching process through which developing nations move from traditional or less developed institutions to those characteristic of more developed societies |
| Modernization theory | The functionalist view that modernization and development will gradually improve the lives of people in developing countries |
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