Anatomy & Physiology
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| major function of the skeletal system | provide supportive framework and support
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| major organ of the skeletal system | bones
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| ligaments | connect bone to bone
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| skeletal system includes | cartilage, bones, joints, and ligaments
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| smooth cartilage at the ends of bone allows... | people to move without pain
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| functions of the skeletal system | support, protection, movement, mineral storage, blood cell formation
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| two important organs the skeletal system protects | brain and spinal cord (alligator and jaguar)
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| how the skeletal system is important for movement | muscle attaches to bone (pulling on the muscle, pulls on the bone with creates movement)
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| blood cell formation occurs within... | bone marrow
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| number of bones in the human body | 206
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| number of bones that are not fused in the human body and can engage in voluntary movement | 177
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| 2 major sections of the skeletal system | axial and appendicular
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| axial section includes... | skull, spine, sternum, ribs
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| appendicular section includes... | upper and lower extremities
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| five types of bones (describe appearance) | long, short, sesamoid, flat, and irregular
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| description of long bones | longer than they are wide
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| description of short bones | equal in length and width
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| description of sesamoid bone | floating, not directly attached to another bone
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| description of flat bones | thinner than they are wide
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| description of irregular bones | oddly shaped (irregularly shaped)
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| examples of long bones | bones in the appendicular regions (femur)
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| examples of short bones | bones in the wrist and ankle
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| example of a sesamoid bone | knee
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| flat bones | sternum, ribs, scapula, and skull
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| example of irregular bones | vertebrae, hip, and skull
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| two types of bone (describe composition) | compact bone and spongy bone
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| description of compact bone | (aka dense or cortical bone), relatively dense connective bone tissue that appears white, smooth, and solid and makes up 80% of bone mass
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| description of spongy bone | (aka cancellous or trabecular bone), located internal to compact bone and appears porous; makes up 20% of bone mass
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| where is spongy bone found? | in the knobs of the bones (the ends)
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| purpose of spongy bone | absorb some of the shock of the body (jarring motion that causes pain when you jump off a swing)
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| where is compact bone found? | the shaft of the bone
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| two regions of a long bone | diaphysis, epiphysis, metaphysis (includes epiphyseal plate)
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| diaphysis | the shaft of the bone; provides leverage and major weight support; contains medullary cavity through the middle of the bone
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| epiphysis | knobby region at the ends of long bone (two types)
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| two types of epiphysis | proximal epiphysis and distal epiphysis
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| proximal epiphysis | end of the bone closest to the trunk
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| distal epiphysis | end of the bone furthest from the trunk
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| composition of the epiphysis | outer thin layer of compact bone and inner region of spongy bone
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| what is the join surface of the epiphysis covered with | a thin layer of hyaline cartilage (aka articular cartilage)
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| purpose of hyaline cartilage at the end of the epiphysis | reduce friction and absorb shock in moveable joints
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| metaphysis | region of mature bone between diaphysis and epiphysis (contains epiphyseal plate)
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| epiphyseal plate | located in the metaphysis; it is a thin layer of hyaline cartilage that provides for continued lengthwise bone growth (growth plate)
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| periosteum | tough sheath covering the outer surface of the bone that is composed of two layers, and attaches to the bone by numerous collagen fibers (aka perforating fibers)
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| two types of layers in the periosteum | outer fibrous layer of dense irregular connective tissue and an inner cellular layer
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| function of the outer fibrous layer of dense irregular connective tissue in the periosteum | protects the bone from surrounding structures, anchors blood vessels and nerves to the bone surface, and acts as an attachment site for ligaments and tendons
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| what is included in the inner cellular membrane of the periosteum? | osteoprogenitor cells, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts
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| three types of cartilage | hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage, and elastic cartilage
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| function of the hyaline cartilage | support and reinforce structure by resisting compressive forces, reducing friction, and functions in growth (basic type of cartilage)
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| functions of fibrocartilage | absorb shock by resisting compressive and tensile forces (more fibrous)
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| tensile forces | involve stretching out
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| functions of elastic cartilage | maintain shape by allowing for stretch-ability and recoil and provides support (more elastin - can stretch and regain shape!)
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| Where is hyaline cartilage? | At the ends of growth plates, the tip of your nose, the soft spot on a babies head, and between the ribs
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| Where is fibrocartilage? | intervertebral discs, meniscus, and pubic symphysis
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| Where is elastic cartilage? | ear canal, ear, and epiglottis
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| tendons | anchor muscle to bone
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| four types of cells found in bone connective tissue | osteoprogenitor cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts
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| osteoprogenitor cells | stem cells - they produce cells that mature and become osteoblasts (pre-babies of bone cells)
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| osteoblasts | synthesize and secrete osteoid
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| osteoid | initial semisolid form of bone matrix that later calcifies
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| osteocytes | mature bone cells derived from osteoblasts that maintain the bone matrix and detect mechanical stress on bone
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| osteoclasts | large phagocytic cells that are involved in breaking down bone and may trigger deposition of new bone matrix
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| bone growth and remodeling | occurs in a cyclic pattern (osteoprogenitor cells --> osteoblasts --> osteocytes --> osteoclasts --> again) and begins during emryologic development
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| bone growth in length | aka interstitial growth
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| bone growth in diameter | aka appositional growth
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| bone growth in length occurs because... | flexible hyaline cartilage permits growth and is replace by bone
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| the epiphyseal plate (with interstitial growth) | interstital growth occurs there if there is hyaline cartilage (during childhood, it maintains thickness; slows rate of cartilage production at maturity; narrows until it disappears (interstitial growth stops)
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| remnant from the epiphyseal plate | remnant - internal thin line of compact bone (epiphyseal line)
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| bone growth in diameter occurs... | within the periosteum (bone matrix is deposited within layers parallel to surface (circumferential lamellae); as the layers increase in number, structure incresaes in diameter (transforms infant bone into a large adult version)
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| layers parallel to bone surface in the bone matrix | circumferential lamellae
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| as bone grows in diameter, | the bone is strengthened
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| as bone grows in length, | you get taller
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| the continual process of bone deposition and resorption is known as | bone remodeling
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| bone remodeling | continues throughout adulthood, occurs at periosteal and endosteal surfaces of a bone at different rates depending on stress, and is dependent on the coordinate activities of osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts
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| mechanical stress | occurs in weight-bearing movement and exercise, and is required for normal bone remodeling; results from skeletal contraction and gravitation forces
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| how mechanical stress is detected | it is detected by osteocytes and communicated to osteoblasts (increase synthesis of osteoid), and causes an increase in bone strength
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| increased bone mass | results from weight-bearing activities (i.e. weight lifting, walking, or running (can increase total bone mass throughout lifetime)
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| decreased bone mass | from removal of mechanical stress, reduced collagen formation, and demineralization (results in decreased strength of unstressed bone in immobilized fracture)
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| breaks in bones are termed | fractures
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| fractures occur as a result of... | unusual stress or impact, increased age (due to normal thinning and weakening of bone)
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| four types of fractures | stress fracture, pathologic fracture, simple fracture, and compound fracture
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| stress fracture | thin break caused by increased physical activity such as when bone experiences repetitive load in running
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| pathologic fracture | occurs in bone weakened by disease (i.e. osteoporosis, brittle bone disease)
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| simple fracture | broken bone not penetrating the skin
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| compound fracture | one or both ends of the bone piercing overlying skin
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| fracture healing | varies in length depending on the type (i.e. simple fracture - 2 to 3 months; compound fracture - longer) and generally becomes slower with age, and some require surgical intervention to heal correctly
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| first step of bone fracture repair (fracture hematoma forms) | a blood clot forms (blood vessels torn within periosteum)
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| second step of bone fracture repair (fibrocartilaginous callus forms) | the fracture hematoma is reorganized into a connective tissue procallus that becomes the fibrocartilaginous (soft) callus
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| third step of bone fracture repair (hard (bony) callus forms) | forms a hard bony callus that continues to grow and thicken
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| fourth step of bone fracture repair (the bone is remodeled) | osteoblasts remove excess bony material, compact bone replaces primary bone, and usually leaves a slight thickening of the bone
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