class notes
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| anatomy | study of the form and structure of the body (relationships among parts of the body as well as the structure of the individual organs)
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| physiology | examines how the body functions (how organ and body systems function under normal circumstances and abnormal circumstances)
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| microscopic anatamoy | examines structures that cannot be seen with the unaided eye (use microscope)
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| cytology | study of body cells and their internal structure
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| histology | study of tissues
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| gross anatomy (macroscopic anatomy) | investigates structures viable to the unaided eye (specimens dissected for examination)
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| systemic anatomy | studies the anatomy of each functional body system
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| regional anatomy | examines all of the structures in a particular region of the body
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| cardiovascular physiology | the functioning of the heart, blood vessels, and blood
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| neurophysiology | the functioning of nerves and nervous system organs
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| respiratory physiology | the functioning of respiratory organs
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| reproductive physiology | the functioning of reproductive hormones and the reproductive cycle
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| pathophysiology | the relationship between the function of an organ system and disease or injury in the system
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| body's level of organization (simplest to most complex) | chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organismal
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| chemical level | involves atoms and molecules
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| atoms | smallest units of matter
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| molecules | one or more combined atoms (sugar, vitamins)
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| macromolecules | more complex molecules (proteins and deoxyribonucleic acid [DNA])
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| organelles | microscopic subunits in cells composed of macromolecules
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| cellular level | consists of cells formed from atoms and molecules from the chemical level
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| cells | smallest living structures, basic units of structure and function in organisms, vary widely in structure, reflecting specialization needed
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| tissue level | consists of tissues
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| tissues | groups of similar cells performing common functions
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| four types of tissues | epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue
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| epithelial tissue | covers exposed surfaces and lines body cavities
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| connective tissue | protects, supports, and binds structures and organs
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| muscle tissue | produces movement
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| nervous tissue | conducts nerve impulses
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| organ level | consists of organs
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| organs | two or more tissue types performing specific functions (i.e. the small intestine composed of all four tissue types, working to process and absorb digested nutrients)
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| organ system level | contain related organs that work together to achieve a common function (i.e. organs of the digestive system working together to digest food, absorb nutrients, and expel waste products)
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| organismal level | highest level of structural organization with all body functions working independently in a living being
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| all organisms must exchange ____, _____, and ___ to carry on metabolism | nutrients, wastes, and gases
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| multicellular organisms require _____ _____ to perform multiple activities | organ systems
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| 11 organ systems | integumentary system, skeletal system, muscular system, nervous system, endocrine system, cardiovascular system, lymphatic system, respiratory system, urinary system, digestive system, male and female reproductive system
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| integumentary system | forms external body covering, protects deeper tissues from injury, synthesizes vitamin D, and site of cutaneous receptors (pain, pressure, sweat and oil glands)
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| skeletal system | protects and supports body organs, provides a framework for muscles, forms blood cells within bones, stores minerals
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| muscular system | locomotion, maintain posture, and produces heat
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| nervous system | fast-acting control system and responds to internal and external changes
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| endocrine system | glands secrete hormones that regulate growth, reproduction and nutrient use
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| cardiovascular system | blood vessels transport blood (carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients and wastes) and the heart pumps blood through blood vessels
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| lymphatic system/ immunity | picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels, disposes of debris in the lymphatic system, houses white blood cells (lymphocytes), and mounts attack against foreign substances in the body
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| respiratory system | keeps blood supplied with oxygen, removes carbon dioxide, and gas exchange occurs though walls of air sacs in the lungs
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| digestive system | breaks down food into absorbable units and indigestible foodstuffs eliminated as feces
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| urinary system | eliminates nitrogenous wastes and regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance
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| male and female reproductive system | overall function is to produce offspring (testes produce sperm and male sex hormones, ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones, and mammary glands produce milk)
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| anatomic position | upright stance, feet parallel and flat on the floor, upper limbs at the sides of the body, palms face anteriorly (toward the front), head is level, eyes look forward
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| section | slice or cut to expose internal anatomy
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| plane | imaginary flat surface passing through the body
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| three major planes | coronal (frontal), transverse, midsagittal (sagittal)
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| coronal plane | vertical plane dividing the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back)
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| transverse plane | horizontal plane dividing the body into superior (top) and inferior (bottom)
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| midsagittal (sagittal) plane | vertical plane dividing the body into equal left and right halves
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| dorsal | toward the back
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| ventral | toward the belly
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| proximal | nearer to the trunk
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| distal | farther from the trunk
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| medial | toward the inside of the body
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| lateral | toward the outside of the body
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| superior | above
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| inferior | below
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| deep | on the inside
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| superficial | on the outside
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| two main regions of the body | axial region and appendicular region
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| axial region | includes the head, neck, and trunk and forms the main vertical axis of the body
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| appendicular region | composed of the upper and lower limbs
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| body cavities are grouped into a _____ and ____ | posterior aspect and ventral cavity
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| posterior aspect | contains cavities completely encased in bone, physically and developmentally distinct from the ventral cavity, and subdivided into the cranial cavity and the vertebral cavity
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| cranial cavity (endocranium) | formed by bones of the cranium (houses the brain)
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| vertebral canal | formed by the bones of the vertebral column (houses the spinal cord)
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| ventral cavity | larger, anteriorly placed, does not completely encase organs in bone, partitioned into superior thoractic cavity and an inferior abdominopelvic cavity, and lined with serous membranes, continuous layer of cells
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| serous membranes composed of two layers | parietal layer and visceral layer
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| parietal layer | lines the internal surface of the body wall
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| visceral layer | covers the external surface of organs (the viscera within the cavity)
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| Where is the serous cavity | between the parietal layer and the visceral layer
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| serous fluid | secreted by the membranes, serves as a lubricant, and reduces friction caused by movement of organs against the body wall
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| mediastinum | median space in the thoracic cavity that contains the heart, thymus, esophagus, trachea, and major blood vessels that connect to the heart
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| serous pericardium | two-layered serous membrane
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| parietal pericardium | outer layer which forms the sac around the heart
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| visceral pericardium | inner layer which forms the heart's external surface
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| pericardial cavity | potential space between parietal and visceral layers containing serous fluid
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| pleura | two-layered serous membrane associated with the lungs
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| parietal pleura | outer layer which lines the internal surface of the thoracic wall
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| visceral pleura | inner layer which covers the external surface of the lungs
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| pleural cavity | potential space between parietal and visceral layers containing serous fluid
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| abdominopelvic cavity can be divided in two... | horizontal plane at the level of the superior aspect of the hip bones
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| abdominal cavity | area superior to the plane and contains most of the digestive system organs, kidneys, and most of the ureters
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| pelvic cavity | area inferior and between the hip bones that contains distal large intestine, remainder of ureters and urinary bladder, and internal reproductive organs
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| homeostasis | the body's ability to maintain a relatively stable internal environment in response to changing conditions
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| body maintains homeostasis with... | homeostatic control systems
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| three components associated with each system to maintain homeostasis | receptor, control center, and effector
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| receptor | the structure that detects changes in a variable, the stimulus (i.e. a change in temperature) and consists of sensory nerves
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| control center | the structure (portion of the nervous system or an endocrine organ) that interprets input from the receptor and initiates changes through the effector
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| effector | the structure that brings about changes to alter the stimulus and most body structures (i.e. muscles and glands)
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| feedback loop | stimulus... detection of stimulus by a receptor... information relayed to the control center... integration of the input by control center and initiation of change through effectors... return of homeostasis by the actions of effectors
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| negative feedback | a type of homeostatic control system that maintains the variable within a normal range (results in action opposite the stimulus), controls most body processes, and variable is maintained within a normal level or set point
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| positive feedback | another type of homeostatic control that moves the stimulus in the same direction and continues until a climatic event occurs
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