test 2
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| appetite is controlled by what two physiological systems? | hormonal and neural systems
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| What are four major hormones involved in appetite and digestion? | leptin, ghrelin, peptide YY, somatostatin
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| Hormone that is secreted by white adipose tissue when lipid content is high, supresses appetite. | leptin
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| hormone secreted by stomach when it is empty, stimulates appetite. | Ghrelin
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| hormone secreted by colon when full, supresses appetite | Peptide YY
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| this hormone reduces growth hormone release, which inhibits digestion. Secreted in the pancreas. | somatostatin
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| two other places somatostatin is produced | lower intestine and duodenum (HINDGUT)
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| The four major neurotransmitters involved in appetite and digestion? | neuropeptide Y (NPY),agouti-related peptide,
gamma amino butyric acid (GABA),
proopiomelanocortin (POMC)
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| which neurotransmitters are appetite stimulators? (3) | NPY, agouti, GABA
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| Which neurotransmitter is involved in appetite inhibition? (1) | POMC
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| as far as the hormones involved in appetite are concerned, list the slowest acting to the fastest (3 discussed) | slowest->leptin//
middle-> peptide Y//
fastest'> ghrelin
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| Build up of what increases peptide YY secretion? (can cause microbial fermentation which leads to gas) | FIBER
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| If blood glucose is too low, what part of the body cannot function? | The brain
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| If blood glucose is too high, what balance is disturbed? | osmotic balance
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| What two hormones are involved in regulation of blood glucose? | INSULIN, GLUCAGON
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| which hormone lowers blood glucose? | Insulin
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| which hormone raises blood glucose? | Glucagon
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| Hormones secreted by what body part control blood glucose? | pancreas
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| def. Hormones that have opposing effects.. | antagonistic pairing
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| the brain runs on what? (precisely controlled) | GLUCOSE
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| the liquid portion of blood is known as..(2) | SERUM, PLASMA
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| what is the ideal blood glucose level in milli osmoles? | 300 mOSM
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| def. irregularly shaped patches of endocrine tissue located within the pancreas... | Islets of langerhans
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| the cells located in the islets of langerhans are either ___ or ___. | Alpha (glucagon), Beta (insulin)
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| what are two physiological events related to blood glucose discussed in class? | Diabetic Coma and Insulin Shock
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| Long-term damage, extremely high blood glucose, osmolarity is WAY above 300mOSM. | Diabetic Coma
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| Extreme ___ is also an aspect of diabetic coma because sugar pulls moisture. | dehydration
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| ___ is another aspect of diabetic coma, it is the result of the body's inability to burn sugar, resulting in the burning of protein which creates an acidic environment for cells | ketoacidosis
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| Is the result of low blood sugar, brain can shut down if blood glucose remains too low which can cause cellular damage if prolonged | insulin shock
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| three potential causes of insulin shock are: | glucose used to quickly, glucose slow to enter circulation, too much insulin
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| another term for insulin shock is.... | HYPOglycemia
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| another term for diabetic coma is.... | HYPERglycemia
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| def. When hormones cause same response in a target cell | additivity
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| do hormones use the same signaling pathway when targeting the same cell in additivity? | NOOO
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| def. When hormones enhance the affect of other hormones | Synergism
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| Sensory receptors range from __ cells to ___ sense__. | single cells to complex sense organs
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| THE SIX TYPES OF RECEPTORS ARE: | chemoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, photoreceptors, electroreceptors, magnetoreceptors, thermoreceptors
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| all receptors ___ incoming stimuli into changes in membrane potential | TRANSDUCE
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| the basic steps involve: | 1. receptor proteins detect stimulus//
2. opening or closing of ion channel//
3. change in membrane potential//
4. signal is sent to CNS//
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| sensory receptor acts as the primary __ neuron in sensory reception | afferent (to CNS) occurs in generator potential
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| change in MP spreads along the efferent neurons membrane, this is known as what kind of potential? | generator potential
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| when the sensory receptor is SEPERATE from the afferent neuron, change in MP releases a neurotransmitter | receptor potential
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| CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORY RECEPTORS BASED ON STIMULUS LOCATION--- 1.detect distant stimuli examples include vision and hearing | telereceptors
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| CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORY RECEPTORS BASED ON STIMULUS LOCATION--- 2. detect stimuli on the outside of the body examples include pressure and temp. | exteroceptors
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| CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORY RECEPTORS BASED ON STIMULUS LOCATION--- 3. detect stimui on the inside of the body examples include blood pressure and oxygen | interoceptors
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| CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORY RECEPTORS BASED ON STIMULUS MODALITY--- 1. receptor for chemicals examples include smell and taste | chemoreceptors
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| CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORY RECEPTORS BASED ON STIMULUS MODALITY--- 2. receptors for pressure and movement examples include touch, hearing, balance | mechanoreceptors
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| CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORY RECEPTORS BASED ON STIMULUS MODALITY--- 3. receptors for light examples include vision | photoreceptors
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| TWO MAJOR TYPES of chemoreceptors in animals | Olfaction and gustation
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| What are the five classes of tastants? | Bitter, Sweet, Sour, Salty, Savory
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| Savory tastant is also known as... | umami
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| what kind of cells are taste receptors? | epithelial cells (release neurotransmitters)
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| The olfactory system can distinguish between thousands of | odorants
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| where is the olfactory system located? | The roof of the nasal cavity
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| the odorant receptor proteins are located where? | on the cilia of the receptor cells
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| odorant receptors are linked to the __ proteins | G
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| the g proteins cause the formation of.. | cAMP (adenylate cyclase)
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| cAMP opens the __ _____. | ion channels
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| two things are able to enter the cell with the channels open... | Ca and Na
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| Ca and Na entering the cell causes ___ to occur and an action potential to be relesed | DEPOLARIZATION
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| def. greatly developed sense of smell... | MACROsmatic
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| def. lesser developed sense of smell.. | MICROsmatic
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| def. no sense of smell | ANOsmatic
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| chemical signals between animals that regulates being turned on or off (sexual) | pheromones
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| pheromones are located in the __ organ (seperate from olfaction) the __ of the nasal cavity | vomeronasal///BASE of nasal cavity
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| pheromones stimulate the primitive __ system | LIMBIC
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| pain receptors are called... | nocioreceptors
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| nocioreceptors have ___ nerve endings to respond to all intense stimuli. | BARE
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| in regards to myelin, nocioreceptors can either be... | myelinated or non-myelinated
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| pain neuron with short lag time and a "bright" response | myelinated
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| pain neuron with longer lag time and diffused pain | non-myelinated
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| def. some form of energy (electrical, chemical, mechanical, radiant) | stimulus
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| def.a particular type of stimulus (sound waves, light waves, pressure, pain, temperature) | modality
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| def. the conscious awareness of a modality | perception
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| def. perception of a stimulus which is determined by the ‘hard wiring’ of the system | sensation
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| def. conversion of stimulus energy to a potential | transduction
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| def. movement of impulse into the CNS | conduction
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| def. the CNS translates the signal into a sensation | translation
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| the four types of information communicated by sensory receptors | modality, location, intensity, duration
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| type of mechanoreception that detects pressure and volume changes | baroreceptors
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| part of the ear that picks up sound waves, transmits them to the bones of the middle ear | ear drum (tympanic membrane)
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| part of the ear that has the smallest bones in the body, form a bridge of 3 bones which amplify sound waves | ossicles
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| the three ossicles are | hammer, anvil, stirrup
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| part of ear, membrane-covered opening from middle ear into inner ear. The base of the stapes bones fits into it, transmitting the sound waves into the inner ear. | oval window
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| two types of photoreceptor cells: 1. –Have a single, highly folded cilium –Folds form disks that contain photopigments | ciliary
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| 2. types of photoreceptor cells Apical surface covered with multiple outfoldings called microvillar projections –Microvillar projections contain photopigments | Rhabdomeric
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| def. Molecules that absorb energy from photons | photopigments
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| vertebrates have ciliary photoreceptors which can be divided into __ and ___ | rods(DIM LIGHT) and cones(BRIGHT LIGHT)
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| part of the eye that refracts light and focuses it onto a single point on the retina | eye LENS
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| part of the eye that secretes tears | lacrimal glands
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| mucous membrane covering of eyeball& eyelids | conjunctiva
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| gland in corner of eye that secretes a lipid substance that keeps eye from drying out | caruncle
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| a tough, white outer supporting & protective coat. Gives eye its shape. | sclera
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| part of eye that acts to refract (bend & directs) light rays into the eye | cornea
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| Light-sensitive coat that contains the photoreceptors cells (rods & cones) EYE PART | retina
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| part of the eye that is an opening through which light passes | pupil
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| part of eye that regulates the size of the pupil | iris
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| an eye problem that can develop, the clouding of lens, loss of transparency | cataract
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| Watery fluid chamber (anterior chamber) of eye between the cornea & lens | aqueous humor
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| eye problem, excessive pressure builds up & destroys retina causing permanent blindness. Due to imbalance of production & absorption of aqueous humor | glaucoma
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| Gel-like fluid in larger chamber (posterior cavity) of eye between the lens and retina, NOT continually replaced | vitreous humor
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| Transduces light energy into nerve impulses that are sent to the brain via the optic nerve | retina (neural tunic)
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| perception of movement and shapes, low light, night time, most numerous...PHOTORECEPTION | RODS
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| light sensitive pigment located in rods, made of opsin and retinal..adapts to dark or light conditions | rhodopsin
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| what are the three different types of cones? (hint: allows cones to see in color) | RED, BLUE, GREEN
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| eye problem, genetic defect in one or more types of cones, most often the red or green. Most common form is sex-linked & occurs mostly in males. | color blindness
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| normal 20/20 vision | emmetropia
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| eye problem, near-sightedness’ Sees clearly close up, blurry distant vision | myopia (near sightedness)
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| eye problem, Hyperopia-’far-sightedness’ Sees clearly in distance, blurry close vision | hyperopia (far sightedness)
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| what is the hypothalamic-anterior-pituitary system for stress? | CRH (corticotropin) produced in hypothalamus
|__ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic hormone) produced by the anterior pituitary
|__cortisol or corticosterone is produced by the adrenal cortex
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| def. disruptive to homeostatis, such as heat, fear, change | stressor
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| varying degrees of pain exist. __ or __. | acute (short term)
chronic (long term)
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| step 1. Stressors cause a response in the ___ by use of ___ _____ | brain// afferent neurons
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| step 2. in regards to the hypothalamus pathway, the cortisol raises __ ___ | blood glucose
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| step 2. in regards to the sympathetic nervous system, what is stimulated? (2) | pancreas and adrenal medullatep
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| Step 2. In regards to the SNS, the pancreas does what? | increases glucagon
decreases insulin
((increases blood glucose))
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| step 2. In regards to the SNS, the adrenal medulla increases what? | epinephrine in blood
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| step2. In regards to the SNS, the adrenal medulla is long term or short term? | short term
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| an increase in epinephrine in the blood results in and increase in __,__ and ___ | heart rate, contraction, breathing rate
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| step 2. In regards to muscles, what is initiated? | movement
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| What are two reasons to mobilize blood glucose? | 1. brain functions on glucose
2. working tissue can use it in place of oxygen when it is low
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| When ACTH is produced by the hypothalamus, ___ is also produced. | POMC (proop)
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| The POMC produces two things. What are they and what do they do? | 1. beta lipotropin - mobilizes fat energy
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| adrenal means what? | on top of the kidney
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| a neurohormone that increases ACTH release by traveling across the pituitary. It is partly responsible for muscle contraction. | Oxytocin
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