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Anatomy&Physiology
Anatomy & Physiology
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Anatomy: | The structural make up of an organism. |
| Two types of anatomy: | Microscopic/Fine and Macroscopic/gross. |
| Microscopic/Fine anatomy: | Viewing the features of the body with the aid of a microscope. |
| Macroscopic/Gross anatomy: | Viewing the features of the body with the naked eye. |
| Physiology: | Refers to the functions of an organism, and it examines the chemical or physical functions that help the body function appropriately. |
| Circulatory System: | A network of organs and tubes that transport blood, hormones, nutrients, oxygen, and other gases to cells and tissues throughout the body. |
| Circulatory System is also known as: | Cardiovascular System. |
| Major components of the Circulatory System: | Blood vessels, blood, and heart. |
| Blood vessels responsibility: | Transport blood throughout the body. |
| Three major types of blood vessels: | Arteries, veins, and capillaries. |
| Arteries: | Blood vessels that carries blood from the heart to the rest of the body. |
| Veins: | Blood vessels that carries blood from the body back to the heart. |
| Capillaries: | Blood vessels that connects arteries to veins and form networks that exchange materials between the blood and the cells. |
| ___ are stronger and thicker than ___. | Arteries; Veins. |
| ___ can withstand high pressure exerted by the blood as the heart pumps it through the body. | Arteries. |
| How do arteries control blood flow? | Vasoconstriction and vasodilation. |
| Vasoconstriction: | Narrowing of the blood vessel's diameter. |
| Vasodilation: | Widening of the blood vessel's diameter. |
| Blood in ___ is under lower pressures and have valves to prevent the backflow of blood. | Veins. |
| Most of the exchange between the blood and tissues takes place through the ___. | Capillaries. |
| Three types of capillaries: | Continuous, fenestrated, and sinusoidal. |
| Continuous Capillaries: | Capillaries that are made up of epithelial cells tightly connected together. They limit types of materials that pass into and out of the blood. They are the most common type of capillary. |
| Fenestrated Capillaries: | Capillaries that have openings that allow materials to be freely exchanged between the blood and tissues. Commonly found in the digestive, endocrine, and urinary systems. |
| Sinusoidal Capillaries: | Capillaries that have larger openings and allow proteins and blood cells through. They are primarily found in the liver, bone marrow, and spleen. |
| Blood: | A liquid connective tissue that serves as a transport system for supplying cells with nutrients and carrying away their wastes. |
| The average human adult has ___ to ___ quarts of blood circulating through the body. | 5; 6. |
| Plasma: | The fluid portion of the blood. |
| Approximately ___ of blood is plasma (the fluid portion) and the remaining ___ is composed of solid cells and cell parts. | 55%; 45%. |
| Three major types of blood cells: | Red blood cells (erythrocytes), White blood cells (leukocytes), and Platelets. |
| Red blood cells (Erythrocytes): | Cells that transport oxygen throughout the body. They contain a protein called hemoglobin that allows them to carry oxygen. The iron the hemoglobin gives the cells and the blood their red colors. |
| White blood cells (Leukocytes): | Cells responsible for fighting infectious diseases and maintaining the immune system. |
| The five types of white blood cells: | Neutrophils, lymphocytes, eosinophils, monocytes, and basophils. |
| Platelets: | Cell fragments that play a central role in the blood clotting process. |
| All blood cells in adults are produced in: | The bone marrow. |
| Red blood cells and most blood cells are produced in the: | Red marrow. |
| Some white blood cells are produced in the: | Yellow bone marrow. |
| The heart is a ___-part, muscular pump that forcefully pushes blood throughout the human body. | Two. |
| The human heart has ___ chambers. ___ upper atria and ___ lower ventricles. | Four; Two; Two. |
| The two upper atria and two lower ventricles are separated by a partition called the: | Septum. |
| ___ valves helps to section off the chambers from one another. | Four. |
| Between the right atrium and ventricle, the three flaps of the ___ ___ keep blood from flowing backwards from the ventricle to the atrium. | Tricuspid valve. |
| Between the left atrium and ventricle, the two flaps of the ___ ___ keep blood from flowing backwards from the ventricle to the atrium. | Mitral valve. |
| The two valves that lie between an atrium and a ventricle is referred to as a: | Atrioventricular valves. (AV) |
| The other two valves are ___ and they control blood flow into the two great arteries leaving the ventricles. | Semilunar. (SL) |
| The ___ ___ connects the right ventricle to the pulmonary artery, while the ___ ___ connects the left ventricle to the aorta. | Pulmonary valve; Aortic valve. |
| A ___ ___ is one complete sequence of cardiac activity. | Cardiac cycle. |
| The cardiac cycle represents the relaxation and contraction of the heart and can be divided into two phases: | Diastole and systole. |
| Diastole: | The phase during which the heart relaxes and fills with blood. It gives rise to the diastolic blood pressure (DBP), which is the bottom number of a blood pressure reading. |
| Systole: | The phase during which the heart contracts and discharges blood. It gives rise to the systolic blood pressure (SBP), which is the top number of a blood pressure reading. |
| Five major blood vessels manage blood flow to and from the heart: | The superior and inferior venae cava, the aorta, the pulmonary artery, and the pulmonary vein. |
| The ___ ___ ___ is a large vein that drains blood from the head and the upper body. | Superior vena cava. |
| The ___ ___ ___ is a large vein that drains blood from the lower body. | Inferior vena cava. |
| The ___ is the largest artery in the human body and carries blood from the heart to the body tissues. | Aorta. |
| The ___ ___ carry blood from the heart to the lungs. | Pulmonary arteries. |
| The ___ ___ transport blood from the lungs to the heart. | Pulmonary veins. |
| In the human body, there are two types of circulation: | Pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation. |
| Pulmonary circulation: | Supplies blood to the lungs. |
| The ___ ___ carry the deoxygenated blood to the lungs. | Pulmonary arteries. |
| The ___ ___ carry oxygenated blood to the left atrium of the heart. | Pulmonary veins. |
| In the lungs, ___ is absorbed, and __ ___ is released. | Oxygen; Carbon dioxide. |
| Systemic circulation: | Supplies blood to all other parts of the body, excepts the lungs. |
| The ___ delivers blood to the ___ arteries, which supply the body tissues. | Aorta; Systemic. |
| The deoxygenated blood along with carbon dioxide and wastes enter the systemic veins, where they are returned to the right atrium of the heart via the ___ and ___ vena cava. | Superior; Inferior. |
| The ___ system breaks them down into their component nutrients and absorbs them so that the circulatory system can transport the nutrients to other cells to for growth, energy, and cell repair. | Digestive. |
| Digestive system nutrients maybe classified as: | Proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals. |
| The digestive system is thought of chiefly in two parts: | The digestive tract (also known as the alimentary tract or gastrointestinal tract (GI)) and the accessory digestive organs. |
| The GI tract is the pathway in which food is ___, ___, ___, and ___. | Ingested, digested, absorbed, and excreted. |
| The digestive system is composed of: | The mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, rectum, and anus. |
| Peristalsis: | Wave-like contractions of smooth muscle, moves food and wastes through the digestive tract. |
| The accessory digestive organs are the: | Salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. |
| The ___ is the entrance to the digestive system. | Mouth. here, the mechanical and chemical digestion of the food begins. |
| Food is chewed mechanically by the teeth and shaped into a ___ by the tongue so it can be easily swallowed by the esophagus. | Bolus. |
| Saliva is secreted from the ___ glands. | Salivary. |
| The largest salivary glands are called: | Parotid glands. |
| Salivary glands secrete: | Amylase. An enzyme that begins chemical digestion and breakdown of the carbohydrates and sugars in the food. |
| The food then moves through the ___ and down the muscular ___ to the stomach. | Pharynx; Esophagus. |
| The stomach: | A large, muscular sac-like organ at the distal end of the esophagus. |
| Chyme: | When bolus turns into a watery nutrient-filled liquid in the stomach and then exits into the small intestine. |
| The stomach secretes many substances into the ___ of the digestive tract. | Lumen. |
| Hydrochloric acid (HCI): | A hormone that prompts other cells in the stomach to secrete a gastric acid. |
| Hydrochloric acid (HCI) is at a ___ concentration and ___ pH that it denatures most proteins and degrades a lot of organic matter. | High; Low. |
| Mucous: | A clear film the stomach secretes to protect the stomach from the corrosive acid from dissolving its own cells; gaps in this film layer can lead to peptic ulcers. |
| Proteases and Lipases: | Digestive enzymes in the stomach that breaks down proteins; although there are some gastric lipases here, the stomach mostly breaks down proteins. |
| Duodenum: | First and shortest portion of the small intestine and approximately 10 to 12 inches in length. Chief site of fat digestion. Last major site of chemical digestion in the GI tract. |
| Pyloric Sphincter: | Is the beginning of the small intestine. |
| Chyme in the duodenum triggers: | The secretion of the hormones secretin and cholecystokinin (CCK). |
| Secretin acts on the pancreas to: | Dump more sodium bicarbonate into the small intestine so the pH is kept in a reasonable level. |
| Cholecystokinin (CCK) acts on the gallbladder to release: | The bile that is has been storing. |
| Bile: | A substance produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder, helps to emulsify or dissolve fats and lipids. |
| Lipases: | Enzymes that breaks down fats. |
| Jejunum (Middle section) and Ileum (Last and longest section containing groups of lymphatic tissue called Peyer Patches): | Other two sections of the small intestine are heavily involved in absorption of nutrients. |
| The small intestine reaches 40 feet in length, and its cells are arranged in small finger-like projections called: | Villi. |
| Nutrients that get absorbs in the small intestine: | Simple sugars, glucose from carbohydrates, amino acids from proteins, emulsified fats, electrolytes like sodium and potassium, minerals like iron and zinc, and vitamins D and B12. |
| Intrinsic Factor: | Binds to vitamin B12, and temporarily protects it from deactivation by gastric juice until is reaches the small intestine, where it is absorbed. |
| The large intestine is also referred as: | The large bowel or colon. |
| The large intestine is mainly responsible for: | Water absorption. The chyme at this stage no longer has any useful nutrients to absorb and is referred to as waste. removing liquid from the waste transform it from liquid to solid stool, or feces. |
| Cecum: | Blind pouch in the lower right quadrant of the abdomen. |
| Appendix: | Contains lymphatic tissue and is suspended from the inferior surface of the cecum. |
| Rectum: | Final storage of waste before it is expelled through the anus. |
| Anal Canal: | A small portion of the rectum leading through to the anus and the outside of the body. |
| What two functions does the pancreas have? | Exocrine and Endocrine. |
| Endocrine function: | Works to regulate blood sugar levels. |
| Endocrine release: | Insulin, which decrease blood sugar (glucose) levels, or glucagon, which increases blood sugar (glucose) levels, directly into the bloodstream. |
| Where does both hormones insulin and glucagon produced? | In the Islets of Langerhans. |
| Insulin in ___ ___ and glucagon in the ___ ___. | Beta cells; Alpha cells. |
| Exocrine function: | Consist of acinar cells secreting inactive digestive enzymes (zymogens) into the main pancreatic duct. The pancreatic duct joins the common bile duct. Which empties into the small intestine (specifically in the duodenum). |
| Endocrine System: | System made of the ductless tissues and glands that secrete hormones into the interstitial fluids of the body. |
| Interstitial Fluid: | Is the solution that surrounds tissue cells within the body. |
| Endocrine system works closely with the ___ ___ to regulate the physiological activities of the other systems of the body to maintain homeostasis. | Nervous system. |
| What kind of response does the nervous system provide? | quick and short-term responses. |
| What kind of response does the endocrine system provide? | By releasing hormones into the bloodstream that get distributed to the whole body. The response is slow but long-lasting, ranging from a few hours to a few weeks. |
| Hormones: | Chemical substances that change the metabolic activity of tissues and organs. |
| Major glands of the endocrine system: | Hypothalamus, Pituitary Gland, Thyroid Gland, Parathyroid Gland, Thymus Gland, Adrenal Gland, Pancreas, Pineal Gland, and Testes and Ovaries. |
| Hypothalamus: | A part of the brain connected to the nervous system to eh endocrine system via pituitary gland. Plays a dual role in regulating endocrine organs. |
| Pituitary Gland: | A pea-sized gland found at the bottom of the hypothalamus. Has two lobes, called the anterior and posterior lobes. |
| Thyroid Gland: | Gland that releases hormones, such as thyroxine, that are important for metabolism and monitors the amount of circulating calcium in the body. |
| Parathyroid Gland: | Four pea-sized glands located on the posterior surface of the thyroid. Main hormone secreted is called parathyroid hormone (PTH) and helps with the thyroid's regulation of calcium in the body. |
| Thymus Gland: | Gland located in the chest cavity, embedded in connective tissue. The hormones secreted are important for development and maintenance of normal immunological defenses. |
| Adrenal Gland: | One adrenal gland is attached to the top of each kidney. It produces adrenaline and is responsible for the fight-or-flight reactions in the face of danger or stress. |
| Epinephrine and Norepinephrine hormones: | Corporate to regulate states of arousal. |
| Pancreas: | An organ that has both endocrine and exocrine functions. Endocrine functions are controlled by the pancreatic islets of Langerhans, which are groups of beta cells that secretes insulin to lower blood sugar levels and alpha cells secrete glucagon (rise). |
| Pineal Gland: | Gland that secretes melatonin, a hormone derived from the neurotransmitter serotonin. It also regulate the body's circadian rhythm. |
| Testes and Ovaries: | These glands secrete testosterone and estrogen, respectively, and are responsible for secondary sex characteristics, as well as reproduction. |
| Immune System: | The body's defense against invading microorganism (bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites) and other harmful, foreign substances. |
| Two types of immunity: | Innate and Acquired. |
| Innate immunity: | Uses physical and chemical barriers to block the entry of microorganisms into the body. |
| Acquired immunity: | Refers to a specific set of events used by the body to fight a particular infection. Stores information about the invading microorganism. More effective than innate immunity. |
| Acquired immunity is divided into 2 responses: | Primary and Secondary. |
| Primary Immune Response: | Occurs the first time a particular microorganism enter the body, where macrophages engulf the microorganism and travel to the lymph nodes. B lymphocytes produce antibodies or immunoglobins. |
| Secondary Immune Response: | Takes place when subsequent encounters with a known microorganism. Memory cells respond to the previously encountered microorganism and immediately produce antibodies. |
| Active and Passive Immunity: | Immunization is the process of including immunity. |
| Active Immunization: | Refers to immunity gained by exposure to infectious microorganism or viruses and can be natural or artificial. |
| Natural Immunization: | Refers to and individual being exposed to an infectious organism as a part of daily life. |
| Artificial Immunization: | Refers to therapeutic exposure to an infectious organism as a way of protecting an individual from disease. |
| Vaccine: | Contains a killed, weakened, or inactivated microorganism or virus that is administered through injection, by mouth, or by aerosol. |
| Passive Immunity: | Refers to immunity gained by the introduction of antibodies. |
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