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AP chem ch2
chemical level of AP excelsior
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| chemistry | science of the structure of matter |
| matter | anything that has mass and takes up space |
| mass | the amount of material in matter (on earth mass=weight, in space you have no weight but have mass) |
| atom | the smallest stable units of matter |
| subatomic particles | the particls that make up atoms. Protons, neutrons, electrons |
| electrical charges of subatomic particles | protons (+), neutrons (n), electrons (-) |
| atoms have ___ numbers of protons and neutrons | equal |
| atomic number | number of protons in an atom |
| simplest atom | hydrogen, 1 proton and 1 electron |
| element | a pure substance composed of atoms of just one type (ie- O2) |
| trace elements | elements present in small amounts |
| isotopes | atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons (ie- hydrogen can have 1, 2 or 3 netrons [H, 2H, 3H]) |
| radioisotopes | unstable isotopes that break down and emit subatomic particles (radiation). Emissions (radiation) can damage cells or molecules) |
| radioactive decay | the breakdown of radioisotopes. Emits radiation (subatomic particles) |
| half-life | time required for one half of a given amount of a radioisotope to decay |
| mass number | the total number of subatomic particles in the nucleus of an atom (P+N=mass#) |
| atomic weight | the actual mass of an atom |
| atom's 1st energy level (e- shell) holds how many electrons? | 2 |
| atom's 2nd and 3rd energy levels (e- shells) contains how many electrons? | 8 |
| valence shell | the outer electron shell |
| inert | elements that do not readily participate in chemical reactions because their outer electron rings are full |
| reactive | elements that interact with other atoms because their outer electron shells are not full |
| chemical bond | holds atoms together after a reaction |
| three types of chemical bonds | 1-ionic bonds 2-covalent bonds 3-hydrogen bonds |
| molecule | structure of atoms held together by covalent bonds (sharing electrons) |
| compound | chemical substance made up of atoms of two or more DIFFERENT elements (does not have to be via a covalent bond) |
| why aren't all compunds considered molecules? | b/c some compounds involve ionic bonds instead of covalent bonds |
| why aren't all molecules considered compounds? | b/c some molecules are made up of the same types of atoms (O2) |
| ion | atoms or molecules with a positive or negative electrical charge |
| cation | an atom or molecule with a positive(+) charge |
| anion | an atom or molecule with a negative(-) charge |
| what gives an ion its electrical charge? | an unequal number of protons and electrons (each proton +1, each electron -1) Na++ has two more protons than electrons |
| electron donor | loses electrons to another atom/molecule making it a cation (+) |
| electron acceptor | gains electrons from a donor making it an anion (-) |
| ionic bond | ions held together by the attraction created by their opposite charges (+ and -) |
| ionic compound | compound formed by the attraction of oppositely charged ions (ie-NaCl) |
| covalent bond | atoms complete their outer rins and become stable by sharing electrons with other atoms |
| single covalent bond | when atoms share one pair of electrons in a covalent bond (ie- hydrogen molecule) H2 |
| double covalent bond | atoms share two pair of electrons in a covalent bond (Oxygen molecule) |
| free radical | an ion or molecule with an unpaired electron in its outer energy level. this makes it highly reactive and destructive towards compounds like proteins |
| types of covalent bonds found with hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide molecules? | HONC-1234. hydrogen single, oxygen double, nitrogen triple and carbon dioxide quadruple covalent bonds |
| nonpolar covalent bonds | atoms of the same element share electrons equally making them electrically neutral |
| polar covalent bonds | when a molecule is made of atoms of different elements, one element has a stronger attraction to electrons giving that element a slight negative charge and the other a slight positive charge (in H2O, O2 attracts e- stronger therefore is slightly negative) |
| polar molecule | a molecule with a polar covalent bond. makes one side of the molecule + and one side - |
| hydrogen bond | attraction between + charge on a hydrogen and a - charge of an oxygen or other molecule with a polar covalent bond |
| are hydrogen bonds weak or strong? | weak, they can't create molecules but they can attract molecules or change their shape |
| surface tension | hydrogen bonds between H2O molecules that act as a barrier preventing small objects from entering the water. |
| solid | state of matter that maintains shape and volume at normal temps and pressures |
| liquid | state of matter with a constant volume but not a fixed shape |
| gas | state of matter with no constant volume or shape |
| chemical reaction | chemical bonds between atoms forming or breaking |
| reactants | the substances that react with each other in a chemical reaction |
| products | the result of a chemical reaction between reactants |
| metabolism | all of the chemical reactions taking place in the body at a given time |
| work | the movement of an object or change in the chemical structure of matter |
| energy | ability to perform work |
| kinetic energy | energy of motion (energy doing work) |
| potential energy | stored energy (energy with potential to do work) |
| each time energy is transferred, some is released as ___ | heat |
| catabolism (decomposition reaction) | the breakdown of a molecule into smaller fragments. releases energy. |
| anabolism (synthesis reaction) | assembly of small molecules into larger ones through the formation of chemical bonds. requires use of energy. |
| heat | increase in random molecular motion |
| dehydration synthesis | forming a complex molecule by the removal of water (opposite of hydrolysis) |
| how many chemical elements does the body contain? | 26 |
| nutrients | essential elements and molecules obtained from diet |
| metabolites | all molecules (including nutrients) that can be synthesized or broken down by our body |
| inorganic compound | does not contain hydrogen or carbon as part of its primary structure |
| organic compound | contains carbon and/or hydrogen as part of its primary structure |
| hydrolysis | chemical decomposition in which a compound is split into other compounds by reacting with water (opposite of dehydration synthesis) |
| most important inorganic compounds in the body | CO2, H2O, O2 |
| most important substance in the body | H2O |
| H2O is how much of total body weight? | 2/3 |
| solubility | organic or inorganic molecules will dissolve or break up in water |
| solution | molecular mixture of two or more substances. |
| solvent | the medium in which molecules, ions or atoms are dispersed in (the liquid portion of solution) |
| solute | substance dispersed in liquid (solvent) in a solution |
| aqueous solution | a solution in which water is the solvent |
| unique properties of water | solubility, reactivity (hydrolysis, etc), high heat capacity, lubrication |
| ionization (dissociation) | compounds held together via ionic bonds break apart in water b/c the bonds are broken by the +/- poles of H2O molecules |
| electrolytes | soluble inorganic molecules whose ions conduct electrical current |
| result of hyperkalemia (too much K+) | dysrhythmia |
| result of hypokalemia (too little K+) | muscular paralysis |
| hydrophilic | having a strong affinity for water b/c they are polar and their electrical charges attract H2O |
| hydrophobic | nonpolar molecules do not interact readily with water b/c there is no electrical charges to attract H2O |
| NaCl | sodium chloride Na+, Cl- |
| KCl | potassium chloride K+, Cl- |
| NaHCO3 | sodium bicarbonate Na+, HCO3- |
| MgCl2 | magnesium chloride Mg++, 2Cl- |
| colloid | solution containing proteins or other large molecules that won't settle out of the solvent |
| suspension | contains large particles but if left undisturbed, gravity will cause solute particles to settle out |
| pH | hydrogen ion concentration; represents a negative logarithm in mol/L |
| neutral pH | 7 |
| pH less than 7 | acidic |
| pH greater than 7 | basic (alkaline) |
| logarithm for pH 6 | [H+]=1x10^-6 mol/L |
| normal blood pH | 7.35-7.45 |
| acid | solute that dissociates in solution and releases H+ ions, lowers pH |
| proton donor | a hydrogen atom that has lost its electron (H+ is made up of 1 p+ and 1 e- so if e- is lost it only leaves a proton) |
| base | solute that removes H+ ions from solution (ie hydroxide OH-) |
| many bases release ___ atoms which bind H+ to form H2O | OH- (hydroxide) |
| strong acid/strong base | dissociates completely in H2O |
| weak acid/weak base | does not disociate completely in H2O |
| bicarbonate/carbonic acid buffer system | bicarb binds hydrogen forming carbonic acid HCO3- + H+ = H2CO3 |
| salt | an ionic compound containing any cation except H+ and any anion except hydroxide. Salts dissociate in H2O due to their ionic bonds |
| neutral salt | salt that does not change pH b/c it doesn't affect H+ or OH- concentrations (ie NaCL) |
| buffer | compounds that stabilize the pH of a solution by removing or replacing H+ ions; consists of a weak acid and its related salt |
| NaHCO3 | sodium bicarbonate |
| carbohydrate | an organic molecule that contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio; important energy source (ie sugars and starches) |
| lactic acid | organic acid generated by active muscle tissue. is neutralized by the carbonic acid/bicarb buffer system |
| monosaccharides (simple sugars) | a carbohydrate containing 3 to 7 carbon atoms; dissolves readily in H2O (triose, tetrose, pentose, hexose, heptose) |
| triose | monosaccharide with 3 carbon atoms |
| tetrose | monosaccharide with 4 carbon atoms |
| pentose | monosaccharide with 5 carbon atoms |
| hexose | monosaccharide with 6 carbon atoms |
| heptose | monosaccharide with 7 carbon atoms |
| isomers | molecules with the same molecular formula but the molecule is arranged in a different 3D structure giving it a different function (ie glucose and fructose) |
| disaccharides | a carbohydrate made up of two monosaccharides joined together (sucrose aka table sugar) |
| all carbs except for monosaccharides must be broken down via ___ before the body can use them for energy | hydrolysis |
| excess sugar is stored as ___ | fat |
| polysaccharides | multiple monosaccharides and/or disaccharides linked together by repeated dehydration synthesis (starches, glycogen, cellulose) |
| glycogen | a complex polysaccharide produced and stored in muscles |
| cellulose | a polysaccharide found in cell walls of plants that humans cant digest |
| lipids | fats, oils and waxes that contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen (like carbs) except ratio of carbon to hydrogen is 1:2 |
| are lipids soluble or insoluble in H2O? | insoluble in H2O |
| which provides more energy gram for gram, carbs or lipids? | lipids |
| fatty acids | long carbon chains with hydrogen atoms attached to a carboxyl group at one end; the carboxyl end associates with H2O the rest of the molecule does not |
| eicosanoids | lipids derived from arachidonic acid (a fatty acid) that include prostaglandins and leukotrienes |
| prostaglandins | short chain fatty acids that are released by cells to coordinate local cellular activities (ie pain stimulation) |
| hormones | chemical messengers that travel in blood stream and affect a distant part of the body (prostaglandins affect a local site, not a distant one) |
| glycerides | fatty acids attached to simple sugars (monosaccharides) |
| triglyceride | glycerol attached to three fatty acids; acts as an energy source, insulator and protects organs |
| steroids | large lipid molecules with distinct carbon framework (cholesterol) |
| cholesterol | steroid that makes up plasma membranes, regulates metabolism and process fats in the liver |
| proteins | chains of amino acids that are the most abundant organic components of the body (approx 20% of TBW) |
| 7 categories of protein function | body support, contractile movement, cellular transport, buffering, metabolic regulation (enzymes), control (homrones), defense (antibodies) |
| proteins are made up of chains of ___ ___ | amino acids |
| 5 components of amino acids | a central carbon atom, hydrogen atom, amino group, carboxyl group, R group (variable group that gives the amino acid its properties/function |
| peptide bond | the bond that links amino acids to form proteins; dehydration synthesis creates a covalent bond between the carboxyl group of one and the amino group of another |
| peptides | molecules of amino acids held together with peptide bonds |
| polypeptide | peptide chains made up of three or more amino acids (protiens contain at least 100 amino acids but usually contain approx 1000 or more) |
| do proteins have a positive or negative electrical charge? | negative, they act as an anion giving the interior of a cell a negative charge |
| 4 levels of protein structure | 1-PRIMARY-amino acid sequence 2-SECONDARY-bonds between atoms in the chain (H+ bonds), 3-TERTIARY-coiling and folding that gives protein 3D shape 4-QUATERNARY-individual polypeptide chains linked to make a protein |
| collagen | the body's most abundant structural protein |
| two classes (types) of protein structure | fibrous and globular |
| fibrous protein | pleated flattened sheets that are durable and used to form body structures |
| golubular protein | compact, rounded and readily enters aqueous solution (hemoglobin, enzymes, hormones, etc) |
| protein __ determines its function and ___ ___ determine it's shape | shape; amino acids |
| environmental conditions that can alter protein shape | ionic composition, temperature, pH, H+ bonding to other molecules in solution |
| enzymes | glubular proteins that catalyze chemical reactions in the body |
| substrates | the reactants in enzyme catalyzed reactions |
| active site | the region on the enzyme that binds the specific substrates |
| enzyme specificity | each enzyme catalyzes only one type of reaction |
| enzyme saturation | when all available enzyme molecules are bound and reacting at top speed further increases in substrate concentration with not affect the reaction rate |
| cofactors | ions or molecules that must bind enzyme before substrates can bind (ie Ca++, Mg++) |
| coenzymes | nonprotein, organic molecules that function as cofactors (many are vitamins) |
| nucleic acids | large organic molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and phosphorus that store and transport genetic information (DNA/RNA) |
| DNA | deoxyriboneucleic acid; store info needed to synthesize proteins |
| RNA | ribonucleic acid; carries info from DNA to sites of protein synthesis |
| nucleotides | the two sugar "backbones" or "strands" of the DNA |
| nucleic acid infor is stored in the sequences of ___ ___ linked to their complements via hydrogen bonds | nitrogenous bases |
| adenine binds to ___ | thymine |
| cytosine binds to ___ | guanine |
Created by:
ed8198
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