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AP Psych
Key Terms
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| emerged from the work of Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, and B.F. Skinner. emphasizes observable behavior that can be objectively measured | behavioral perspective |
| emerged from work of Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow; emphasizes importance of self-esteem, free will, and choice in human behavior | humanistic perspective |
| emerged from the work of Sigmund Freud; emphasizes the role of unconscious conflicts in determining behavior and personality | psychoanalytic/psychodynamic perspective |
| compares the mind to a computer that encodes, processes, and stores information; emphasizes thinking, percieving, and information processing | cognitive perspective |
| emphasizes genetics, the roles of various parts of the brain, and the structure and function of individual nerve cells | biological perspective |
| influenced by Charles Darwin; emphasizes the role played by natural selection and adaptation in the evolution of behavior and mental processes | evolution perspective |
| carefully controlled scientific procedure involving manipulation of variables to determine cause and effect | experimental method |
| variables that have an unwanted influence on the outcome of an experiment | confounding varibale |
| an in-depth examination of a single research participant | case-study |
| researcher observes or measures two or more naturally occuring variables to find the relationship between them; researcher does not directly manipulate the variables | correlation research |
| numerical value from +1 and -1 that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables; positive correlation indicates two variables vary in same direction; negative is in opposite directoins; zero is no relationship | correlation coefficient |
| a measure of variability that indicates the average differences between the scores and their mean | standard deviation |
| bell-shaped curve, describing the spread of a characteristic through a population; half the scores are above the mean and half are below the mean | normal distribution |
| contains more scores on the low end of the scale; mean is higher than the median | positively skewed distribution |
| contaims more scores on the high end of hte scale; mean is higher than the median | negatively skewed distribution |
| the probability of concluding that a difference exists when in fact the difference does not exist; a statistically significant difference is a difference not likely due to chance | p-value |
| highly specialized nerve cell responsible for receiving and transmitting information in electrical and chemical forms; the fundamental building blocks of the nervous system | neuron |
| a white, fatty covering wrapped around the axons of some neurons, which increases the rate at which nerve impulses travel along the axon | myelin sheath |
| a brief electrical impulse by which information is transmitted along the axon of a neuron | action potential |
| the principle that either a neuron is sufficiently stimulated and an action potential occurs or a neuron is not sufficiently stimulated and an action potential does not occur | all-or-nothing law |
| chemical substances in the nervous system that reduce the perception of pain | endorphins |
| chemical transmitters manufactured by a neuron | neurotransmitters |
| branch of the automatic nervous system that produces rapid physical arousal in response to percieved emergencies or threats | sympathetic nervous system |
| branch of autonomic nervous system that calms the body, maintains bodily functions, and conserves energy | parasympathetic nervous system |
| small brain structure beneath the thalamaus that helps govern the release of hormones by the pituitary gland and regulates the drives such as hunger and thirst | hypothalamus |
| thin surface layer on the cerebral hemisphere that regulates most complex behavior, including sensations, motor control, and higher mental processes such as decision making | cerebral cortex |
| nearly symmetrical left and right halves of the cerebral cortex; left hemisphere is verball and analytical functions; right hemisphere is nonverbal abilities like art and music | cerebral hemispheres |
| bundle of nerve fibers connecting the brain's left and right hemispheres; | corpus callosum |
| an almond-shaped part of the limbic system linked to regulation of emotional responses, especially fear | amygdala |
| curved forebrain structure that is part of the limbic system and is involved in learning and forming new memories | hippocampus |
| minimum intensity at which a stimulus can be detected at least 50% of the time; | absolute threshold |
| decline in sensitivity to a constant stimulus; longer you are exposed to a smell the less you smell it | sensory adaptation |
| process by which sensory receptors convert the incoming physical energy of stimuli, such as light waves, into neural impulses that the brain can understand | transduction |
| states that sensation depends on the characteristics of the stimulus, the background stimulation, and the detector; selective attention enables you to filter out and focus on only selected sensory messages | signal detection theory |
| theory that explains how the nervous system blocks or allows pain signals to pass to the brain | gate-control theory |
| the long, thin visual receptor cells in the retina that are highly sensitive to light, but not color; responsible for peripheral vision and black and white vision | rods |
| the short, thick visual receptor cells, concentrated near the center of the retina, responsible for color vision and fine detail | cones |
| point at the back of the retina where the optic nerve leaves the eye | blind-spot |
| the coiled, snail-shaped structure in the inner ear containing recpetors for hearing | cochlea |
| biological processes that systematically vary over a period of about 24 hours | circadian rhythm |
| type of sleep during which rapid eye movements and dreams usually occur | REM sleep |
| trancelike state of heightened suggestibilty, deep relaxation, and intense focus | hypnosis |
| splitting of consciousness into two or more simultaneous streams of mental activity | dissociation |
| based upon work of Ivan Pavlov; learning processes that occurs when a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response | classical conditioning |
| a natural stimulus that reflexively elicits a response without the need for prior learning | unconditioned stimulus |
| an unlearned response that is elicted by an unconditioned stimulus | unconditioned response |
| a stimulus that produces no conditioned response prior to learning | neutral stimulus |
| when paired with the unconditioned stimulus, this occurs as it gains the power to cause a response | conditioned stimulus |
| a learned response elicted by the conditioned stimulus | conditioned response |
| gradual weakening of a conditioned behavior when the conidtioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus | extinction |
| occurs when stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus also elicit the conditioned response; child frightened by rabbit. child sees white fur coat and is frightened | stimulus generalization |
| ability to distinguish between two similar stimuli; person is afraid of poison oak leaves, but not oak tree leaves | stimulus discrimination |
| learning process in which behavior is shaped and maintained by consequences (rewards/punishments) that follow a response | operant conditioning |
| reinforcement strengthens a response and makes it more likely to occur | reinforcement |
| a situation in which behavior or response is followed by the addition of a reinforcing stimuli; the stimulus increases the probability that the response will occur again | positive reinforcement |
| a situation in which a behavior or response is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus; increases the likelihood of a behavior by enabling a person to either escape an exiting aversive stimulus or avoid and aversive stimulus before it occurs | negative reinforcement |
| states that the opportunity to engage in a preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less-preferred activity | premack principle |
| a reinforcement schedule in which all correct responses are reinforced | continuous reinforcement |
| the technique of strengthing behavior by reinfocing successive approximations of a behavior until the entire correct routine is displayed | shaping |
| the rewarding of some, but not all, correct responses | intermittent reinforcement |
| reinforcement occurs after a predetermined set of responses; you are paid for every two lawns you mow | fixed ratio schedule |
| reinforcement is unpredicatble because the ratio varies; casino slot machines | variable ratio schedule |
| reinforcement occurs after a predetermined time has elapsed; paycheck every friday | fixed interval schedule |
| reinforcement occurs unpredicatblyy since the last time interval varies; teacher gives unannounced pop quizzes | variable interval schedule |
| a process in which a behavior is followed by an aversive consequence that decreases the likelihood of the behavior being repeated | punishment |
| adding an aversive stimulus that weakens a response and makes it less likely to recur | positive punishment |
| taking away a stimulus that weakens a response and makes it less likely to occur | negative punishment |
| occurs by watching others and then imitating or modeling the observed behavior | observational learning |
| the use of a general cue to retrieve a memory; fill in the blank questions | recall |
| the use of specific cue to retrieve a memory; multiple choice test | recognition |
| information at the beginning and end of a list is remembered better than material in the middle | serial-position effect |
| a subdivision of declarative memory that stores memories of personal experiences and events; first prom and first soccer game are examples of these | episodic memory |
| occurs when old information interferes with recalling new information; old locker combination interferes with remembering new locker combination | proactive interference |
| occurs when new information intereferes with recalling old information; writing Euro essay makes it difficult to remember how to write and U.S. essay | retroactive interference |
| people who suffer from this are unable to remember some or all of their past | retrograde amnesia |
| people who suffer from this are unable to form new memories | anterograde amnesia |
| process of remembering several pieces of information by mentally associating an image of each with a different location | method of loci |
| the smallest distinctive sound used in a language; t in tardy and 'ng' in sing | phonemes |
| smallest unit of meaning in a language; untouchable has three of these: 'un' 'touch' and 'able' | morphemes |
| a logical, step by step procedure that, if followed correctly, will eventually solve a specific problem | algorithm |
| tendency to think of an object as functioning only in its usual or customary way; as a result individuals often do not see unusual or innovative uses of familiar objects | functional fixedness |
| a preference for information that confirms preexisting positions or beliefs, while ignoring or discovering contradictory evidence | confirmation bias |
| a general rule of thumb or shortcut that is used to reduce the number of possible solutions | heuristic |
| judging the likelihood of an even based on readily available personal experiences or news reports; news of plane crash causes family to cancel plane reservation | availability heuristic |
| judging the likelihood of an event based on how well it matches a typical example or prototype; if someone is 6'4" and weighs 290, he may be an NFL lineman and not a stockbroker | representative heuristic |
| a type of thinking in which problem solvers devise a number of possible alternative approaches; a major element in creativity | divergent thinking |
| an optimal level of psychological arousal helps performance; when arousal is too low, our minds wander and we become bored; we arousal is too high, we become too anxious and 'freeze-up' | yerkes-dodson law |
| Maslow's theory that lower motives must be met before advancing to higher needs | hierarchy of needs |
| the drive to succeed, especially in competition with others; individuals who have a strong need for achievement seek out tasks that are moderately difficult | achievement motivation |
| based upon external rewards or threats of punishment; james tutors because he wants extra money | extrinsic motivation |
| based upon personal enjoyment of a task or activity; robbie tutors becasue he enjoys helping otheres | intrinsic motivation |
| cultural norms that influence how and when emotional responses are displayed | display rules |
| our subjective experience of emotion follows our experience of physiological changes (we feel sorry because we cry) | james-lange theory |
| physical arousal and cognitive labeling of that arousal produce our subjective experience of emotions | schachter-singer two-factor theory |
| an emotional response to demands that are perceived as threatening or exceeding a person's resources or ability to cope | stress |
| occurs when a person is forced to choose between two or more opposing goals or desires | conflict |
| Hans Seyle's three-stage reaction to stress (alarm, resistance, exhaustion) | general adaptation syndrome |
| measures a single individual or group of individuals over an extended period of time | longitudinal method |
| compares individuals of various ages at one point in time | cross-sectional method |
| a concept of framework that organizes and interprets information | schema |
| the process of absorbing new information into an existing schema | assimilation |
| the process of adjusting old schemas or developing new ones to incorporate new information | accomodation |
| an infant's understading that objects or people continue to exist even when they cannot be directly seen, heard, or touched | object permanence |
| the child's inability to mentally reverse a sequence of events or logical operations | irreversibility |
| understanding that certain physical characteristics remain unchanged, even when their outward appearance changes | conservation |
| parents set few rules, make minimal demands, and allow their children to reach their own conclusions | permissive style of parenting |
| parents set firm rules, make reasonable demands, and listen to their children's viewpoints while still insisting on responsible behavior | authoritative style of parenting |
| parents set rigid rules, enforce strict punishments, and rarely listen to their child's point of view | authoritarian style of parenting |
| Erik Erikson's theory that individuals pass through eight developmental stages, each involving a crisis that must be successfully resolved | psychosocial stages |
| according to Freud, this is completely unconscious; consists of innate sexual and aggresive instincts and drives; impulsive, irrational, and immature; pleasure principle and seeks to acheive immeadiate satisfaction | the id |
| according to Freud, this is partly conscious; consists of internalized parental and societal standards; opeartes on morality principle; seeks to enforce ethical conduct | the superego |
| according to Freud, this resides in the conscious and preconscious levels of awareness; is rational and practical; operates on reality principle, seeking to mediate between the demands of the id and superego | the ego |
| in Freudian theory, the ego's protective method of reducing anxiety and distorting reality | defense mechanisms |
| Freud's first and most basic defense mechanisms; prevents unaccetpable impulses from coming into conscious awareness | self-efficacy |
| individuals who accept personal responsibility for their life experiences have this internally; people who believe that most situations are governed by change have this externally | locus of control |
| trait theory of personality that includes openness, conscientousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism | five-factor method |
| the notion, proposed by Charles Spearman, of a general intelligence factor that is responsible for a person's overall performance on tests of mental ability | G factor |
| aspects of innate intelligence, including reasoning abilities, memory, and speed of information processing, that are relatively independant of education and tend to decline as people age | fluid intelligence |
| knowledge and skills gained through experience and education that tend to increase over the life span | crystallized intelligence |
| establishment of norms and uniform procedures for giving and scoring a test | standaradization |
| measure of consistency and reproducibiltiy of test scores during repeated administration of a test | reliability |
| the ability to test to measure what it is designed to measure | vailidity |
| observations or behavrios that result primarily from expectations | self-fulfilling prophecy |
| characterized by a strong, irrational fear of specific objects or situations that are normally considered harmless | phobia |
| characterized be persistant, repetitive, and unwanted thoughts and behaviors | obsessive-compulsive disorder |
| characterized by intense feelings of anxiety, horrow, and helplessness after experiencing a traumatic event | post-traumatic stress disorder |
| characterized by periods of both depression and mania | bipolar disorder |
| characterized by physical complaints about conditions that are caused by pscyhological factors | somatoform disorder |
| group of sever disorders involving major distubrnaces in perception, language, thought, emotion, and balance, delusional beliefs, hallucinations, and disorganized speech and thought | schizophrenia |
| characterized by grandiose sense of self-importance, fantasies of unlimited success, need for excessive admiration, and a willingness to exploit others to achieve personal growth | narcissistic personality disorder |
| involve a splitting apart of significant aspects of a person's awareness, memory, or identity | dissociative disorder |
| Fruedian therapy designed to bring unconscious conflicts, which usually date back to childhood experiences, into consciousness | psychoanalysis |
| therapy that treats problem behaviors and mental processes by focusing on faulty thought processes and beliefs | cognitive therapy |
| albert Ellis's cognitive therapy to eliminate emotional problems through the rational examination of irrational beliefs | rational emotive therapy |
| focuses on removing obstacles that block personal growth and potential | humanistic therapy |
| Carl roger's therapy emphasizing the client's natural tendency to become healthy and productive; techniques include empathy, unconditional positive regard, an active listening | client-centered therapy |
| group of techniques that use the principles of classical conditioning, operant learning, and observational learning to modify maladaptive behaviors | behavior therapy |
| a gradual process of extinguishing a learned phobia by working through a hierarchy of fear-evoking stimuli while staying deeply relaxed | systematic desensitization |
| uses the princples of classical conditioning to create anxiety by pairing an aversive stimulus with a maladaptive behvario | aversion therapy |
| uses drugs and electroconvulsive therapy to treat psychological disorders | biomedical therapy |
| the widespread tendency to overemphasive dispositional factors and to underestimate situational factors when making attributions about the cause of another person's behavior | fundamental attribution error |
| tendency for people to take credit for their successes while at the same time attributing their failures to external situations beyond their control | self-serving bias |
| when people make decisions based upon factual information, logical arguments, and a thoughtful analysis of pertinent detail; buy a cell phone based upon its price | central route to persuasion |
| when people make decisions based upon emotional appeals and incidental cues; buy a cell phone based on its color and slogan | peripheral route to persuasion |
| the persuasion strategy to getting a person to agree to a modest first request as a set-up for a later much larger request | foot-in-the-door phenomenon |
| the state of psychological tension, anxiety, and discomfort that occurs when an indiviuals attitude and behavior are inconsistant | cognitive dissonance |
| the tendency for an individuals performance to improve when simple tasks are performed in the presence of others | social facilitation |
| the tendency for an individuals performance to decline when complex tasks are performed in front of others | social inhibition |
| the phenomenon of people making less effort to achieve a goal when they work in a group rather than when they work alone | social loafing |
| the reduction of self-awareness and personal responsibilty that can occur when a person is part of a group whose members feel anonymous | deindividuation |
| the tendency for people to be less likely to assist in an emergency situation when other people are present | bystander effect |
| the tendency for a group's predominant opinoin to become stronger or more extreme after an issue is discusses | group polarization |
| the tendency for a cohesive decision-making group to ignore or dismiss reasonable alternatives | groupthink |
| tendency for people to adopt the behavior, attitudes, and beliefs of other members of groups | conformity |
| the performance of an action in response to the direct orders of an authority or person of higher status | obedience |
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