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respiratory unit
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Describe the major functions of the respiratory system. | - to supply the body with oxygen and get rid of carbon dioxide through four main processes. |
| four respiratory processes | 1. pulmonary ventilation 2. external respiration 3. transport 4. internal respiration |
| Pulmonary ventilation | The movement of air into and out of the lungs (breathing). |
| External respiration | The exchange of O2 and CO2between the lungs and the blood. |
| Transport | The movement of O2 and CO2 in the blood. |
| Internal respiration | The exchange of O2 and CO2 between systemic blood vessels and tissues. |
| upper and lower respiratory tracts | - upper airway passages: nasal structures, pharynx, and larynx, upper trachea - lower airway passages: trachea, lungs,bronchial tree. |
| Respiratory zone | - site of gas exchange - Microscopic structures: respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli |
| Conducting zone | - conduits to gas exchange sites - Includes all other respiratory structures |
| order of air passing through during inspiration | nasal cavity/nostrils; pharynx; larynx; trachea; right and left main (primary) bronchi ; lobar (secondary) bronchi; segmental (tertiary) bronchi; terminal bronchioles; respiratory bronchioles; alveolar ducts; alveoli. |
| Nasal cavities | warms, moistens, and filters inspired air; houses olfactory receptors. |
| Paranasal sinuses | Lighten the skull and help warm/moisten air. |
| Pharynx | Muscular tube connecting nasal cavity/mouth to larynx and esophagus; acts as a passageway for food and air across its three regions (nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx). |
| Larynx | Provides an open airway, routes air and food into proper channels, and handles voice production via vocal folds. |
| Trachea | Flexible windpipe reinforced with C-shaped hyaline cartilage rings; cleans, warms, and militates incoming air on its path to the lungs. |
| Bronchi | Branching system of air conduits delivering air deep into lung tissue. |
| Lungs | House the bronchial tree and alveolar networks for gas exchange; the left lung is smaller with two lobes, while the right lung has three lobes. |
| Pleural membranes | Double-layered serosa (parietal and visceral pleura) enclosing the pleural cavity containing lubricating pleural fluid to reduce friction during breathing. |
| Pulmonary blood vessels | Comprise a low-pressure, high-volume circulation system dedicated to gas exchange. |
| Thoracic and pleural cavities | House and protect the thoracic organs while maintaining negative intrapleural pressure crucial for lung expansion. |
| Diaphragm | The primary skeletal muscle of respiration whose contraction/flattening increases thoracic volume to drive inspiration. |
| Respiratory (nasal) mucosa | Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium containing mucous and serous secretions with lysozyme and defensins to trap and destroy dust/bacteria. |
| Layers of the tracheal wall | Composed of mucosa (ciliated pseudostratified epithelium with goblet cells), submucosa (connective tissue with seromucous glands), hyaline cartilage rings (for structural openness), and adventitia (outer connective tissue). |
| Bronchi and bronchioles | Transition from cartilage rings to cartilage plates, shifting from pseudostratified to cuboidal epithelium, with increasing relative amounts of smooth muscle. |
| Three cell types found in alveoli | - Type I alveolar cells - Type II alveolar cells - Alveolar macrophages |
| Type I alveolar cells | Single layer of squamous epithelium forming the primary alveolar walls. |
| Type II alveolar cells | Scattered cuboidal cells that secrete surfactant and antimicrobial proteins. |
| Alveolar macrophages | Immune cells crawling along internal surfaces to keep them sterile. |
| Respiratory membrane | blood barrier consisting of alveolar walls, capillary walls, and their fused basement membranes |
| Changes in epithelial and connective tissue in air passageways | -going from bronchi to bronchioles, cartilage rings give way to plates and disappear at terminal bronchioles. - Epithelium changes cuboidal, while cilia and goblet cells become sparse. - amount of smooth muscle increases |
| Pulmonary ventilation | The total movement of air into and out of the lungs. |
| Inspiration | The phase where gases flow into the lungs. |
| Expiration | The phase where gases exit the lungs. |
| Quiet inspiration | Active contraction of the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles. |
| Forced inspiration | Uses additional accessory muscles (like scalenes, sternocleidomastoid, and pectoralis minor) to further elevate the rib cage. |
| Forced expiration | A passive process during quiet breathing, but forced expiration actively involves contracting abdominal muscles (which push organs upward) and internal intercostal muscles (which depress the rib cage). |
| Atmospheric pressure | Pressure exerted by the air surrounding the body (760 mm Hg at sea level). |
| Intrapulmonary pressure | Pressure in the alveoli, which fluctuates with breathing and always equalizes with atomspheric pressure |
| Intrapleural pressure | Pressure in the pleural cavity, which fluctuates but remains consistently negative relative to intrapulmonary pressure |
| Transpulmonary pressure | the difference between intrapulmonary and intrapleural pressure (subtraction), which keeps the air spaces open. |
| Boyle's law | States that pressure (P) of a gas varies inversely with its volume (V) at a constant temperature - when one goes up the other goes down - inspiration: volume raises, pressure drops - experation: volume drops, pressure raises |
| Factors affecting pulmonary ventilation part I | - Bronchiolar smooth muscle contractions: Constriction increases airway resistance and severely restricts ventilation. - high Lung and thoracic wall compliance and recoil makes lungs easy to expand |
| Factors affecting pulmonary ventilation part II | -Airway resistance (F = P/R): Gas flow changes inversely with resistance; friction and airway diameters dictate how easily air moves. - pulmonary Surfactant reduces surface tension in alveolar fluid, preventing alveolar collapse |
| Forces that tend to collapse the lungs | The natural elasticity of the lungs causing recoil, and the surface tension of alveolar fluid. |
| opposing forces | Opposing forces: elasticity of chest wall pulling thorax outward, combined with negative intrapleural pressure and strong adhesion from pleural fluid sealing membranes together. |
| Tidal Volume (TV) | ~500 ml; air inhaled/exhaled during normal resting breathing. |
| Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) | ~3,100 ml (male) / ~1,900 ml (female); extra air forcefully inhaled after normal tidal inspiration. |
| Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) | ~1,200 ml (male) / ~700 ml (female); extra air forcefully exhaled after normal tidal expiration. |
| Residual Volume (RV) | ~1,200 ml (male) / ~1,100 ml (female); air remaining in lungs after forced expiration. |
| Inspiratory Capacity (IC) | - (IC = TV + IRV) ~3,600 ml (male) / ~2,400 ml (female). |
| Functional Residual Capacity (FRC). | - (FRC = ERV + RV) ~2,400 ml (male) / ~1,800 ml (female). |
| Vital Capacity (VC) | - VC = TV + IRV + ERV ~4,800 ml (male) / ~3,100 ml (female). |
| Total Lung Capacity (TLC) | - TLC = TV + IRV + ERV + RV ~6,000 ml (male) / ~4,200 ml (female). |
| anatomical dead space | The volume of air that occupies the conducting respiratory passageways and never reaches the alveoli for gas exchange. |
| Dalton's Law | - Total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is the sum of the pressures exerted independently (partial pressure) by each gas in the mixture. |
| Henry's law | When a gas is in contact with a liquid, the gas will dissolve in the liquid in proportion to its partial pressure and solubility. |
| ventilation- perfusion coupling | -if youre not getting enough air/blood, air/blood is sent else where where more is being produced |
| internal respiration gradiants at tissues | - oxygen slides out of blood and into tissues - CO2 slides out of tissues and into blood |
| oxygen transport | - mostly travels attached to hemoglobin (each one can hold 4 oxygen molecules - some oxygen floats around in plasma |
| oxygen unloading/loading factors | - higher temp, higher pCO2, higher H+, lower pH = oxygen unloading - same for going down |
| location of brainstem respiratory centers | - Medulla oblongata (VRG and DRG) - Pons (Pontine respiratory centers) |
| Medulla oblongata (VRG and DRG) | - ventral respiratory group (VRG) contains rhythm generators that drive basic respiration - dorsal respiratory group (DRG) integrates peripheral sensory input and modifies VRG output. |
| Pons (Pontine respiratory centers) | Interacts with medullary centers to smooth and modulate the respiratory transition between inhalation and exhalation |
| Hyperventilation | Ventilation exceeding metabolic demands, causing a drop in blood CO2 (hypocapnia). |
| Hypoventilation | Insufficient ventilation relative to metabolic needs, leading to carbon dioxide accumulation |
| Panting | Rapid, shallow breathing patterns. |
| Eupnea | Normal, quiet, resting breathing. |
| Hyperpnea | An increase in ventilation depth and rate matching increased metabolic needs during exercise. |
| Apnea | A temporary period of breathing cessation |
| Emphysema | Destruction of alveolar walls and loss of lung elasticity, reducing surface area and causing air trapping and hyperinflation. |
| Asthma | Active airway inflammation and acute bronchospasms that severely constrict bronchioles and restrict airflow. |
| Tuberculosis (TB) | Bacterial infection causing lung lesions, tissue destruction, coughing, and hemorrhaging. |
| Chronic bronchitis | Chronic mucosal irritation resulting in excessive mucus production, obstructed airways, hypoventilation, hypoxemia, and respiratory acidosis. |
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