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APHY 102 Exam 4b
The Urinary System
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| the kidneys filter how many liters of blood daily? | 200 L, allowing toxins, metabolic wastes, and excess ions to leave the body in urine |
| we have 5 L of blood in the body, so how many cycles does it go through for the kidneys to filter 200 L? | 40 |
| what are the basic functions of the kidneys? (recognize for multiple choice) | regulate volume of the blood, regulate chemical makeup of the blood, maintain the proper balance between water and salts, and acids and bases |
| what are the 3 other renal functions? | gluconeogenesis during prolonged fasting, production of renin for blood pressure regulation and erythropoietin to stimulate RBC production, and vitamin D activation |
| what is gluconeogenesis? | making glucose from noncarbohydrate sources, which brain relies on |
| what does renin do? | help regulate blood pressure by acting as the "master switch" for long-term blood pressure control, initiating a series of reactions that ultimately increase blood volume and narrow blood vessels |
| what is the technical name for activated vitamin D? | calcitriol, which functions to raise blood calcium concentration |
| what are the other urinary system organs besides the kidneys? | urinary bladder, paired ureters, urethra |
| the kidneys lie in a retroperitoneal position in the superior lumbar region. which kidney is lower than the other, crowded by the liver? | right kidney is lower, crowded by the liver |
| which surface of the kidney is convex and which is concave? (options are lateral and medial) | medial is concave, lateral is convex |
| which structure of the kidney leads to the renal sinus? | the renal hilum |
| which structures enter and exit at the hilum? | ureters, renal blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves enter and exit at the hilum |
| what layers of tissue support the kidney? | renal capsule, adipose capsule (perirenal fat) and renal fascia |
| what is the fibrous capsule that prevents kidney infection? | renal capsule |
| what is the fatty mass that cushions the kidney and helps attach it to the body wall? people who suffer from anorexia have renal problems due to loss of this layer. | adipose capsule (perirenal fat) |
| what is the outer layer of dense fibrous connective tissue that anchors the kidney? | renal fascia |
| which fat layer is immediate to the fibrous capsule of the kidney and which is the outermost layer of fat surrounding the kidney area? | immediate=perirenal; outermost=pararenal |
| what is the difference between the renal cortex and renal medulla? | the cortex is the superficial region (light colored & granular); the medulla has cone-shaped medullary pyramids separated by renal columns |
| a medullary pyramid and its surrounding cortical tissue constitute a what? | a lobe |
| what is the flat, funnel-shaped tube lateral to the hilum of the kidney within the renal sinus? | renal pelvis |
| what collects urine draining from renal papillae? | minor calyces |
| what collects urine from the minor calyces and empties urine into the renal pelvis? | major calyces |
| what is the pathway of urine from the renal papillae to the bladder? | nephrons → collecting ducts → papillae → minor calyces → major calyces → renal pelvis → ureters → bladder → urethra |
| note that the flow of blood is a slightly different pathway than urine just because it needs to get to the filters first to become urine. what is that pathway? (Fig. 24.3b) | aorta→renal a→segmental a→interlobar a→arcuate a→cortical radiate a → afferent arteriole → glomerulus → efferent arteriole → peritubular capillaries (or vasa recta in deep nephrons) →(to the heart): cortical radiate v → arcuate v → interlobar v → renal v |
| true or false, the segmental veins join the interlobar veins to the renal veins | false, there are no "segmental veins" in humans; the interlobar veins join directly to form the renal vein |
| what fraction of systemic cardiac output flows through the kidneys each minute? how many mL is that? | one-fourth of cardiac output per minute--1200mL |
| what is the nerve supply for the kidneys? | renal plexus |
| what is the structural and functional unit of the kidney that forms urine? | the nephron |
| what is the tuft of capillaries associated with a renal tubule? helps make up the nephron | glomerulus |
| why is the glomerular capsule (Bowman's capsule) referred to as blind? | once that fluid (filtrate) is caught in the capsule, it has only one exit route: through the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT). like a catcher's mitt: the mitt is "blind" because it’s a closed pocket designed to catch a ball |
| what is the cup-shaped end of a renal tubule that completely surrounds the glomerulus? | Bowman's capsule (glomerular capsule) |
| together, what is the name for the glomerulus and its Bowman's capsule? | renal corpuscle |
| what is the name for the fenestrated epithelium that allows solute-rich, virtually protein-free filtrate to pass from the blood into the glomerular capsule? | glomerular endothelium |
| which type of cell is at the proximal convoluted tubules of nephrons? | simple cuboidal epithelium with dense microvilli (the "brush border"). the "workhorses" |
| explain why the proximal convoluted tubule need so much microvilli? | they vastly increase surface area because the PCT has to reabsorb about 65% of all filtrate. they also have tons of mitochondria to power pumps |
| what is the function of the proximal convoluted tubule? | reabsorbs water and solutes from filtrate and secretes substances into it |
| which type of cell is at the descending loops of Henle of nephrons? | thin segment (descending & start of ascending): simple squamous epithelium--flat, thin cells designed for passive diffusion |
| which type of cell is at the ascending loops of Henle of nephrons? | thick segment (upper ascending): simple cuboidal to columnar epithelia--thicker because they contain pumps to actively move Na+ and Cl- out of the tubule |
| which type of cell is at the distal convoluted tubules of nephrons? | simple cuboidal epithelium (but with very few microvilli). since most reabsorption is already done, the "fuzzy" brush border isn't needed |
| which types of cells are at the collecting duct after the nephron? | principal cells: cuboidal cells w/o microvilli that handle water and sodium balance. intercalated cells: cuboidal cells with microvilli that help manage acid-base (pH) balance |
| which type of cell is at the glomerular capsule? | parietal layer: simple squamous (just a outer structural wall). visceral layer: podocytes. these highly specialized "foot" cells' foot processes wrap around the capillaries to create filtration slits |
| at what point does glomerular filtrate become urine? | filtrate officially becomes urine at the end of the collecting duct, specifically when it enters the minor calyx at the renal papilla |
| what is the flow of glomerular filtrate? | glomerular capsule PCT nephron loop DCT collecting duct papillary duct minor calyx major calyx renal pelvis ureter urinary bladder urethra |
| what are the two types of nephrons? | cortical nephrons (85% of nephrons, located in the cortex) and juxtamedullary nephrons at the cortex-medulla junction |
| what are some important features of juxtamedullary nephrons? | have loops of Henle that deeply invade the medulla, have extensive thin segments, and are involved in concentrated urine production |
| what are the differences between peritubular capillaries and vasa recta? | location, structure, function: PCs go with cortical nephrons and VRs go with juxtamedullary nephrons, although VRs also have peritubular capillaries |
| what is the difference in role for peritubular capillaries and vasa recta? | PCs primary job is reabsorption and secretion, VRs preserve the osmotic gradient and allow the medulla to stay very salty. this saltiness is what pulls water out of the collecting duct later, allowing you to produce concentrated urine |
| how many capillary beds does each nephron have? | 2: glomerulus and peritubular capillaries |
| why is BP in the glomerulus relatively high at 40 mmHg? | arterioles are high-resistance vessels so filtration is enhanced |
| why do afferent arterioles have larger diameters than efferent arterioles? | wider afferent arteriole allows a large volume of blood to flow easily into the glomerular capillaries. because the efferent arteriole is much narrower it effectively "backs up" blood flow |
| peritubular capillaries are porous capillaries adapted for absorption. why are they low-pressure? | they arise from efferent arterioles and so have low pressure. they also cling to adjacent renal tubules and empty into the renal venous system |
| what are the long, straight efferent arterioles of juxtamedullary nephrons? | vasa recta |
| true or false, afferent and efferent arterioles offer low resistance to blood flow | false, they offer high resistance to blood flow |
| blood pressure from renal arteries to renal veins goes from 95 mmHg to what mmHg? | 8 mmHg |
| resistance in afferent arterioles protects glomeruli from what? | fluctuations in systemic blood pressure |
| resistance in efferent arterioles is higher than afferent arterioles. what does this accomplish? | reinforces high glomerular capillary hydrostatic pressure to keep glomerular filtration going; reduces hydrostatic pressure in peritubular capillaries |
| why would it be good to reduce hydrostatic pressure in peritubular capillaries? | fluids are able to be reabsorbed into the capillaries from the interstitial fluid; high protein content here helps reabsorption too because it sucks fluid into where the protein is |
| what is the JGA? how is the JGA different from the glomerular corpuscle? | the renal corpuscle is the "filter machine" and the JGA is the "quality control sensor" that sits right next to it |
| where is the JGA? | where the distal convoluted tubule doubles back and lies against the afferent (sometimes efferent) arteriole). the JGA is found at the vascular pole of the renal corpuscle, which is where the arterioles enter and leave |
| it's important to know that JG cells (aka granular cells) are an important part of the arteriole walls of the JGA. they have what 3 features? | enlarged, smooth muscle cells that allow for vasodilation/vasoconstriction, have secretory granules containing renin, and act as mechanoreceptors (stretch receptors) |
| the JGA has what 3 types of cells? (Fig. 24.6) | JG cells aka granular cells (stretchy cells), macula densa (boss taste cells), and mesangial cells (keep area free of debris) |
| what are the tall, closely packed distal convoluted tubule cells adjacent to JG cells, functioning as chemoreceptors or osmoreceptors? | macula densa |
| what are the cells between JG and macula densa cells that have phagocytic and contractile properties, influencing capillary filtration and keeping the area clean? | mesangial cells |
| would the chemical signals released by the macula densa cells be classed as endocrine or paracine? | paracrine. they don't travel through blood to reach distant target cells |
| what is the filter that lies between the blood and the interior of the glomerular capsule? | filtration membrane |
| what are the 3 layers of the filtration membrane? | fenestrated endothelium of the glomerular capillaries, visceral membrane of the glomerular capsule (podocytes), and basement membrane composed of fused basal laminae of the other layers |
| what is the function of the 3 layers altogether of the filtration membrane? | hold back RBCs and most plasma proteins in the capillary lumens |
| the kidneys filter the body's entire plasma volume how many times each day? (obviously we reabsorb most of this!) | 60 times a day |
| what substance contains all plasma components except protein, and loses water, nutrients, and essential ions to later become urine? | filtrate |
| what does urine usually primarily contain? | metabolic wastes and unneeded substances |
| (starred) what are the 3 major processes of urine formation and adjustment of blood composition? | glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, tubular secretion |
| (starred) why is the glomerulus more efficient (filters more) than regular capillary beds for what 3 reasons? | its filtration membrane is more permeable, glomerular BP is higher, and it has a higher net filtration pressure |
| (starred) are plasma proteins filtered at the glomerulus? | no, they are used to maintain oncotic pressure of the blood, meaning highly concentrated blood with a lot of protein content will suck fluid to promote reabsorption |
| (starred) what is the term for the pressure responsible for filtrate formation in the glomerulus? | NFP, or net filtration pressure |
| (starred) what is the formula for NFP (see FIg. 24.9)? | NFP = HPg - (OPg + HPc) -- about 10 mmHg(!) | |
| what does OPg stand for? | oncotic pressure of glomerular blood |
| what does HPc stand for? | capsular hydrostatic pressure |
| what is the term for the total amount of filtrate formed per minute by the kidneys? | GFR, glomerular filtration rate |
| what 3 factors govern filtration rate at the capillary bed? | total surface area available for filtration, filtration membrane permeability, net filtration pressure |
| what is the relationship between NFP and GFR? | they are directly proportional to each other. changes in GFR normally result from changes in glomerular blood pressure |
| if GFR is too high, what happens? | needed substances cannot be reabsorbed quickly enough and are lost in the urine ("salty" tubular fluid) |
| if GFR is too low, what happens? | everything is reabsorbed, including wastes that are normally disposed of ("watery" tubular fluid) |
| what 3 mechanisms control the GFR? | renal autoregulation (intrinsic system), neural controls, and hormonal mechanism (the renin-angiotensin system) |
| (starred) what is the hormonal mechanism that controls the GFR (glomerular filtration rate)? | the renin-angiotensin system |
| under normal conditions, which mechanism controlling the GFR maintains a nearly constant glomerular filtration rate? | renal autoregulation |
| renal autoregulation entails what 2 types of control? | myogenic (myo meaning muscle) and flow-dependent tubuloglomerular feedback (senses changes in the JGA) |
| what is myogenic autoregulation? | it's the kidney's "reflex" ability to keep blood flow and filtration stable by responding directly to changes in BP, entirely within the smooth muscle cells of the afferent arteriole without nerves/hormones signals |
| what happens if the macula densa on the DCT deems the tubular fluid too salty? does it constrict or dilate afferent arteriole? what happens to GFR? | if too salty, the macula densa tells the afferent arteriole to constrict and lower GFR |
| what happens if the macula dense on the DCT deems the tubular fluid not salty enough? does it constrict or dilate afferent arteriole? what happens to GFR? | if not salty enough, macula dense tells the afferent arteriole to dilate which will increase GFR |
| usually, the _______ nervous system controls kidney filtration rates; when this is at rest, autoregulation mechanisms prevail and renal blood vessels are maximally dilated | sympathetic |
| under stress, the SNS releases what? and the adrenal medulla releases what? | norepinephrine and epinephrine, respectively |
| true or false, under stress, afferent arterioles constrict and filtration is inhibited | true |
| what other mechanism does the sympathetic nervous system also stimulate? | the (haunting) renin-angiotensin mechanism |
| what is triggered when the JG cells release renin? | renin-angiotensin mechanism |
| how does the renin-angiotensin mechanism work, in short? (1) | when BP or salt levels drop, kidneys release enzyme renin, which converts angiotensinogen into angiotensin I. |
| how does the renin-angiotensin mechanism work, in short? (2) | angiotensin I is then transformed by ACE into angiotensin II, a vessel-constricting hormone to immediately raise BP |
| how does the renin-angiotensin mechanism work, in short? (3) | finally, it triggers the release of aldosterone, which forces the kidneys to retain salt and water to increase blood volume long-term |
| where is angiotensinogen made? | liver |
| where is angiotensin I produced? | kidney |
| where is angiotensin I converted to II? | lungs |
| what 2 things does angiotensin do? | causes MAP (mean arterial pressure) to rise via the thirst mechanism and vasoconstriction; also stimulates adrenal cortex to release aldosterone |
| why is it significant that both systemic and glomerular hydrostatic pressure rise together via the renin-angiotensin mechanism? | if the mechanism only raised systemic pressure, the surge of blood hitting the kidneys could damage the filters. if it only raised glomerular pressure, you would lose too much water as urine |
| what 4 things can trigger renin release? | 1. reduced stretch of the granular JG cells, 2. stimulation of the JG cells by activated macula densa cells, 3. direct stimulation of the JG cells via beta1-adrenergic receptors by renal nerves, 4. angiotensin II |
| what 4 controls regulate renin release? | myogenic mechanism of autoregulation, tubuloglomerular mechanism of autoregulation, hormonal mechanism of renin-angiotensin mechanism, and neural controls |
| (starred) recap: what are the 3 major processes of urine formation and adjustment of blood composition? | glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, tubular secretion |
| what is the transepithelial process whereby most tubule contents are returned to the blood (the 2nd of 3 processes whereby urine is formed)? | tubular reabsorption |
| in tubular reabsorption's transcellular pathway, transported substances move through what 3 barriers? | luminal & basolateral membranes of tubule cells, as well as the endothelium of peritubular capillaries |
| which ions are reabsorbed through a different type of pathway, between tubule cells, and what is that pathway called? | Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, and some Na+ through paracellular pathways |
| true or false, in tubular reabsorption, all organic nutrients are reabsorbed? | true |
| where are water and ion reabsorption hormonally controlled? | in the distal convoluted tubule |
| where does obligatory reabsorption take place? | in the proximal convoluted tubule |
| is reabsorption an active (requiring ATP) or passive process? | may be either/both, for instance sodium reabsorption is almost always by active transport ultimately at the basolateral membrane, but enters the luminal membrane passively by secondary active transport |
| what is the pathway of salt reabsorption (out of the nephron and back into the blood)? | transcellular route: from the PCT to the luminal membrane (passively) out of the tubular cell via the basolateral membrane (actively); from there it moves briefly into the interstitial fluid to peritubular capillaries |
| what 2 pressures move sodium (Na+) to the peritubular capillaries from inside the cell (active transport by the sodium potassium pump)? | low hydrostatic pressure of peritubular blood (higher pressure in interstitial fluid pushes solutes and water into peritubular capillaries) and high osmotic (and oncotic) pressure of the peritubular blood |
| what provides the energy and the means for reabsorbing most other solutes? | Na+ reabsorption |
| active pumping of Na+ at the PCT drives reabsorption of what 3 groups of substances? | water by osmosis (aided by aquaporins--termed obligatory water reabsorption), cations and fat soluble substances by diffusion, and organic nutrients and selected cations by secondary transport |
| what do transport maximums have to do with nonreabsorbed substances at the kidney? | Tm is the physical "speed limit" for how fast the kidney can reabsorb a specific substance, directly caused by the finite number of carrier proteins (transporters) available in the tubule membranes |
| what happens when the carrier proteins of the renal tubules are saturated? what happens to the excess of a specific substance? | it is lost in the urine (such as in diabetes mellitus--called glycosuria) |
| what are features of substances that are not reabsorbed? | they might lack carriers like inulin, they might not be lipid soluble, or they might be physically too large to pass through membrane pores |
| what are the 3 most important nonreabsorbed substances (that are secreted mainly in the PCT)? | urea (though a portion of this is reabsorbed), creatinine, uric acid |
| is proteinuria (protein in the uria) normal or abnormal? | abnormal |
| substances reabsorbed in the PCT include what? | sodium, all nutrients, cations, anions, water, urea, lipid-soluble solutes, small proteins that slipped through the filtration slits in the glomerulus |
| substances reabsorbed in the loop of Henle include what? | mainly water, but also sodium, chloride, potassium in the descending limb; mainly sodium, but also calcium and magnesium in the ascending limb (note sodium is in both) |
| substances reabsorbed in the DCT include what? | Ca2+, Na+, H+, K+, water, HCO3- and Cl- |
| substances reabsorbed in the collecting duct include what? | water and urea |
| tubular secretion | |
| for what 4 purposes is tubular secretion important? | for disposing of substances not already in filtrate; for eliminating undesirable substances such as urea, uric acid; for ridding the body of excess K+ ions, and controlling blood pH--we can secrete H+ ions in the case of acidosis |
| why is ridding the body of excess potassium especially important? what organ would be affected? | too much potassium harms heart function (hyperkalemia) |
| osmolality reflects the solutions ability to cause osmosis. body fluids are measured in what unit? | milliosmols (mOsm) |
| the kidneys keep the solute load of body fluids constant at about 300 mOsm, accomplished by the what? | countercurrent mechanism |
| what is the countercurrent mechanism? | uses fluid flowing in opposite directions through the loop of Henle to create and maintain a salty gradient in the kidney, allowing you to produce concentrated urine |
| what is the interaction between the flow of filtrate through the loop of Henle (countercurrent multiplier) and the flow of blood through the vasa recta blood vessels (countercurrent exchanger)? | countercurrent mechanism |
| true or false, the vasa rectra blood is flowing in an opposite direction to the loop of Henle | true |
| what is the range of the solute concentration in the loop of Henle? | 300 mOsm to 1200 mOsm |
| what does the vasa recta prevent? | keeps the salty medullary gradient from being "washed away" through a passive process called countercurrent exchange |
| how is the dissipation of the medullary osmotic (salinity) gradient prevented? | because the blood in the vasa recta equilibrates with the interstitial fluid |
| (Fig. 24.13) Which direction does the osmolarity get saltier at the kidney? | from the cortex toward the medulla, it gets saltier and saltier the deeper you go |
| why is the loop of Henle called a countercurrent multiplier? | the ascending limb actively pumps salt out of the tubule. This makes the surrounding tissue saltier, which then "pulls" more water out of the descending limb. this effect is repeated over and over again |
| what is the descending loop of Henle relatively impermeable to, and what is it permeable to? | it's permeable to water, while being relatively impermeable to solutes |
| what is the ascending loop of Henle relatively impermeable to, and what is it permeable to? | impermeable to water, and relatively permeable to solutes because it's got the ability to pump lots of Na+ out |
| what problem does the vasa recta solve? | they are special peritubular capillaries that dive down to feed the loop of Henle nutrients/oxygen via blood in a way that does not wash out that hard-earned gradient |
| so the vasa recta is a countercurrent exchanger that does what 2 main things? | maintains the osmotic (salinity) gradient and delivers blood to the cells in the area |
| true or false, filtrate is somewhat diluted on its way up the ascending loop of Henle | true |
| urine is dilute from the last part of the salinity gradient into where? and what could be secreted that would change this? | the renal pelvis; this will happen as long as ADH is not being secreted, which makes collecting ducts remain impermeable to water |
| what status is conferred onto urine when its osmolality is as low as 50 mOsm? | hypotonic urine |
| how is urine's concentration sometimes reduced to less than 300 mOsm? | by further removal of sodium and selected ions by active and passive mechanisms in the DCT and cortical part of the collecting duct |
| formation of concentrated urine at the collecting duct: ADH (antidiuretic hormone) inhibits what? | ADH inhibits water loss (diuresis)--it is a signal to create concentrated urine because our BP is too low and you want the water moved to the bloodstream |
| when ADH arrives, it inserts water channels called aquaporins. this "opens the door" so water rushes in or out? | out to where the salt is, out of the filtrate and into the salty medulla, this continues until the concentration (osmolality) of the fluid inside the tubule matches (equalizes with) the concentration of the salty tissue outside |
| what is it called when the urine is more concentrated than blood? | the urine is hypertonic |
| in the presence of ADH, up to _____% of the water in filtrate is reabsorbed? | 99% |
| what is ADH-dependent water reabsorption called? | facultative water reabsorption (vs. obligatory at the PCT) |
| why is it important for the kidney medulla to stay salty? | without that gradient, you would lose massive amounts of water every day—up to 18 liters—because the kidney would have no way to pull it back into the blood |
| how do hypotonic urine and hypertonic urine both control water loss? | hypotonic urine prevents your blood from becoming too "watery," and hypertonic urine prevents it from becoming too "salty" |
| how is hypotonic urine produced? | water diuresis is caused by drinking excess water; water and salt are separated at/by the cortical collective duct reabsorbing salt under aldosterone |
| importantly, in hypotonic urine, do solutes return to the blood or go out with the urine? | solutes return to the blood to help increase blood solute concentration |
| how is hypertonic urine produced? | dehydration raises ADH levels, raising aquaporin channel production and installation, so instead of water remaining in urine it gets reabsorbed by the vasa recta and blood becomes more dilute while urine concentrates |
| what are the Big 3 hormones of renal physiology? | aldosterone, ADH, and atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) |
| which two renal structures are subject to hormonal control? | DCT (distal convoluted tubule) and collecting duct |
| what is the pathway for aldosterone? | low BP→renin release→ang. II formation→adrenal cortex stimulated→aldosterone stimulated→aldosterone promotes Na+ reabsorption in the ascending nephrone loop, the DCT, and the cortical CD→promotes passive water reabsorption--osmosis→lowers urine vol→reg BP |
| in what 3 structures does aldosterone promote Na+ reabsorption? | ascending nephron loop, distal convoluted tubule, cortical collecting duct |
| what is the pathway for ADH? | dehydration stimulates hypothalamus → stimulates posterior pituitary, releasing ADH → ADH promotes water reabsorption by making COLLECTING DUCT more permeable to water → urine volume decreases |
| which Big 3 hormone raises urine volume, and which decreases it? | ADH and aldosterone decrease it, and ANP increases it |
| if both ADH and aldosterone decrease urine volume, why are both needed? | they regulate different, crucial aspects of fluid balance: ADH (vasopressin) handles water concentration (osmolarity) by reabsorbing free water, while Aldosterone manages sodium balance and volume by reabsorbing salt, which then drags water along with it |
| atrial natriuretic peptide has an opposing effect. what is its pathway? | raised BP stimulates the right atrium to secrete ANP, promoting Na+ and water excretion by inhibiting the reabsorption of Na+ and Cl- in the collecting duct → urine volume increases and blood volume decreases → BP drops |
| what is the term for chemicals that enhance the urinary output? | diuretics |
| what 3 things characterize diuretics? | any substance filtered but not reabsorbed, substances that exceed the ability of the renal tubules to reabsorb it, substances that inhibit Na+ reabsorption |
| how do diuretics enhance urinary output? | the number of solute particles in the urine is increased, and water follows, thus increasing urine volume |
| what are some common osmotic diuretics? | high glucose molecules (water out with glucose), alcohol through inhibition of ADH (then you can't not pee), caffeine and drugs that inhibit sodium ion reabsorption, Lasix and Diuril (inhibit Na+-associated symporters) |
| what are the ranges of normal urien voume, polyuria, oliguria, and anuria? | normal is 1-2 L a day, polyuria is > 2 L/day, oliguria is <500 mL/day, anuria is 0-100 mL/day |
| what are two common renal function tests? | renal clearance (checking one waste that is removed in a minute), and glomerular filtration rate (inulin or creatinine) |
| what breakdown product of hemoglobin colors urine? | urochrome |
| what physical characteristic of urine may indicate infection of the urinary tract? | cloudy urine |
| standing urine develops what compound due to action of bacteria? | an ammonia |
| what are 5 physical characteristics of urine? | color, transparency, odor, pH, specific gravity |
| what is the ratio percentage of urine's water and solutes? | 95% water, 5% solutes |
| what are some normal solutes of urine? abnormally high concentrations of any urinary constituents may indicate pathology. (recognize for multiple choice "which is not") | sodium, potassium, phosphate, sulfate, calcium, magnesium, bicarbonate ions |
| what are 2 generalized causes of urinary pathology? | excessive blood levels of the substance coming into the glomerulus, or inadequate reabsorption by the tubules |
| ureters have a trilayered wall of what 3 layers? | transitional epithelial mucosa on the inside, smooth muscle muscularis in the middle, fibrous connective tissue adventitia on the outside (versus most abdominal organs having serosa on the outside) |
| the urinary bladder has what 3 layers? | transitional epithelial mucosa, a thick muscular DETRUSOR MUSCLE, and a fibrous adventitia (not a serosa) |
| what is the stimulus for ureters actively propelling urine to the bladder? | smooth muscle stretch in the ureters |
| although the kidneys are the most famous retroperitoneal organs, what other urinary organ(s) are retroperitoneal? | the ureters and the urinary bladder, the latter being posterior the pubic symphysis |
| what is the triangular area outlined by the openings for the ureters and the urethra? | trigone--clinically important because infections tend to persist in this region |
| true or false, both the stomach and urinary bladder have rugae | true |
| true or false, the bladder expands with significant rise in internal pressure | false, the bladder expands without significant rise in internal pressure |
| what is the range of the urinary bladder's capacity on the fuller end in mL? | 500-800mL |
| what is the path of urine out of the male urinary bladder? | urine exits the male bladder via the internal urethral sphincter and travels through the prostatic, membranous, and spongy (penile) urethra before exiting the external urethral meatus |
| what are the 3 named regions of the male urethra? | prostatic, membranous, and spongy (penile) urethra |
| what is the muscular tube that drains urine from the bladder, conveying it out of the body | urethra |
| true or false, the female urethra is tightly bound to the anterior vaginal wall | true |
| what is micturition? | voiding or urination--the act of emptying the bladder |
| distension of urinary bladder walls initiates what neural reflexes? | spinal reflexes that stimulate contraction of the external urethral sphincter, and inhibit the detrusor muscle and internal sphincter (initially and temporarily) |
| what do voiding reflexes stimulate and inhibit? | voiding reflexes stimulate the detrusor muscle to contract, and inhibit the internal and external sphincters |
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