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POLS 110 exam 2
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| What is Political Socialization? | The lifelong process through which individuals develop political values, beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors, learning about politics and their role in government and society. |
| Define Political Values. | Core beliefs about the nature of government, individual rights, and societal responsibilities. |
| Define Political Beliefs. | Ideas and convictions about how government should function and which policies are most effective or desirable. |
| Define Political Attitudes. | Feelings, sentiments, or opinions held towards specific political issues, leaders, or institutions. |
| How does Political Socialization begin and evolve? | It begins in childhood, with early experiences forming a foundation. It continues throughout life, with new information and experiences potentially reinforcing or altering views. |
| Name the primary agents of Political Socialization. | Family, schools, media, religion, peers, coworkers, community, political and community leaders, and demographic factors. |
| Explain the role of the Family in Political Socialization. | The most influential agent early in life, parents transmit political values and party affiliations; children learn through observation and discussion, though influence may lessen with age. |
| How do Schools contribute to Political Socialization? | Schools teach civics, government, and history; promote patriotism and national identity; provide civic knowledge; and offer participation opportunities like mock elections. |
| Describe the Media's influence on Political Socialization. | Media provides political information, exposes people to multiple viewpoints, sets the public agenda, and social media is especially influential for younger generations. |
| How does Religion impact Political Socialization? | Religious institutions shape moral and political values; religious affiliation and attendance are linked to political beliefs and voting behavior. |
| What is the influence of Peers, Coworkers, and Community on Political Socialization? | They reinforce or challenge beliefs, share political information, encourage participation, and can create echo chambers. |
| How do Political and Community Leaders shape public opinion? | Through speeches, endorsements, framing issues, and mobilizing voters; local leaders strongly influence community politics. |
| List key Demographic Factors that influence political views. | Race and ethnicity, gender, age, income and education, geography, and religion. |
| What are common forms of Civic Participation? | Voting, protesting, volunteering, contacting elected officials, campaign participation, and political discussion. |
| How does Political Socialization relate to Civic Participation? | Political socialization shapes values and beliefs that influence how and whether individuals participate in civic life. |
| Describe the Generational Effect in politics. | Political views are shaped by major historical events during formative years, creating generational differences in ideology and behavior. |
| What are general voting patterns by generation? | Silent Generation conservative; Baby Boomers lean conservative; Gen X mixed; Millennials liberal; Gen Z most liberal. |
| What is political participation? | Actions by private citizens intended to influence government decisions or public policy. |
| What is an interest group? | An organized group that seeks to influence government policy and public opinion on behalf of specific interests or causes. |
| How are interest groups different from political parties? | Interest groups influence policy but do not run candidates or seek to control government directly. |
| What is a social movement? | A large, loosely organized effort by many people seeking broad social or political change. |
| What motivates social movements? | Shared grievances, perceived injustice, and a desire for large-scale change. |
| Give examples of social movements. | Civil Rights Movement, Women's Suffrage Movement, Environmental Movement, Occupy Wall Street, MAGA Movement. |
| How do interest groups differ from social movements? | Interest groups are formal and policy-focused, while social movements are broader, grassroots-driven, and focus on societal change. |
| What is collective action? | People working together to achieve a shared political or social goal. |
| Why is collective action important in democracy? | It allows citizens to pool resources, amplify their voices, and influence government. |
| How has group participation changed over time? | Traditional group membership declined while online and issue-based participation increased. |
| How has technology affected interest groups and social movements? | It allows rapid mobilization, online organizing, and wider outreach. |
| What are solidary incentives? | Reasons for joining a group based on social connection and belonging. |
| What are purposive incentives? | Reasons for joining a group based on belief in a cause or ideology. |
| What are economic incentives? | Reasons for joining a group to gain material or financial benefits. |
| What are economic interest groups? | Groups that represent material interests such as businesses, workers, or professions. |
| Give examples of economic interest groups. | Business groups, labor unions, professional associations, agricultural groups. |
| What are public interest groups? | Groups that advocate for causes benefiting society as a whole. |
| Give examples of public interest groups. | Sierra Club, NAACP, ACLU, Public Citizen. |
| Political Party | An organized group whose goal is to influence government by electing its members to public office |
| Why are political parties essential to democracy? | They connect citizens to government, organize political action, and mobilize participation |
| Connecting citizens to government | Parties provide ways for citizens to vote, advocate policy, run for office, and engage politically |
| Facilitating political action | Parties unite diverse individuals so they can act collectively to influence government |
| Bridging divides | Parties provide shared platforms and identities that can unify voters, though they may also increase polarization |
| Recruiting candidates | Parties find and encourage individuals to run for political office |
| Organizing elections | Parties oversee campaigning and help coordinate election activity |
| Campaigning | Mobilizing voters and resources to win elections |
| Fundraising | Raising money to support candidates, campaigns, and party organizations |
| Party platform | A statement of a party's principles, beliefs, and policy goals |
| Mobilizing voters | Encouraging citizens to register, turnout, and vote for party candidates |
| Organizing government | Parties structure legislatures, committees, and leadership once in power |
| Three faces of political parties | Party in the electorate, party organization, and party in government |
| Party in the electorate | Citizens who identify with and support a political party |
| Characteristics of party in the electorate | Shaped by personal values, social influences, media, and ideology |
| Importance of party in the electorate | Voting behavior determines party success in elections |
| Party organization | The formal structure of the party including leaders, activists, and committees |
| Functions of party organization | Recruit candidates, raise funds, develop platforms, organize campaigns, mobilize voters |
| Examples of party organizations | Democratic National Committee (DNC), Republican National Committee (RNC), state and local parties |
| Party in government | Elected officials and candidates belonging to a political party |
| Functions of party in government | Make laws, govern, set agendas, and implement policies |
| Responsible party model | Ideal theory that parties offer clear platforms and enact them when elected |
| Responsible party model: accountability | Voters should be able to reward or punish parties for performance |
| Reality vs. theory of responsible party model | Coalitions, individual politicians, and compromise weaken strict accountability |
| Party identification | A voter's psychological attachment or loyalty to a political party |
| How party identification is measured | Voter registration, surveys, and voting behavior |
| Demographic influences on party ID | Race, religion, age, education, income |
| Ideology and party ID | Political beliefs (liberal, conservative, moderate) strongly predict affiliation |
| Two‑party system | A political system dominated by two major parties |
| Winner‑take‑all system | The candidate with the most votes wins all representation |
| Plurality | Winning an election with the most votes, even without a majority |
| Why winner‑take‑all hurts third parties | Third parties gain no representation if they don't win |
| Voter psychology | Fear of "wasting" votes discourages third‑party voting |
| Ballot access laws | Rules that make it difficult for third parties to appear on ballots |
| Campaign finance advantage | Major parties have stronger fundraising networks |
| Media bias toward two parties | News coverage focuses on Democrats and Republicans |
| Socialization to two‑party system | Political norms reinforce support for the two major parties |
| Third party | A political party outside the two major parties |
| Splinter parties | Break away from major parties over leadership or ideology |
| Examples of splinter parties | Progressive Party (1912), Dixiecrats (1948), American Independent Party (1968) |
| Ideological parties | Parties based on a consistent set of beliefs |
| Examples of ideological parties | Socialist Party, Libertarian Party, Green Party |
| Issue advocacy parties | Parties focused on a single issue |
| Examples of issue advocacy parties | Free Soil Party, Reform Party |
| Spoiler effect | When third‑party candidates siphon votes from major parties |
| Third parties shaping agendas | Force major parties to adopt new ideas |
| Are third parties bad? | They can cause spoilers but increase choice, innovation, and accountability |
| Party system | A stable set of political coalitions and party competition patterns |
| First Party System (1789‑1828) | Federalists vs. Democratic‑Republicans |
| Federalists | Supported strong national government, national bank, commerce |
| Democratic‑Republicans | Supported states' rights, agrarianism, limited federal power |
| Second Party System (1828‑1860) | Democrats vs. Whigs |
| Democrats (Jackson era) | Championed common man, westward expansion |
| Whigs | Supported American System, federal economic development |
| Third Party System (1860‑1896) | Republican dominance after Civil War |
| Republicans (Third System) | Anti‑slavery, pro‑industry, strong national government |
| Fourth Party System (1896‑1932) | Republican dominance during industrialization |
| Fifth Party System (1932‑1968) | Democratic dominance under New Deal |
| New Deal coalition | Workers, African Americans, urban voters supporting Democrats |
| Post‑1968 era | Realignment, polarization, possible new party system |
| Factionalism | Internal divisions within a political party |
| Causes of factionalism | Ideology, region, leadership, media influence |
| Effects of factionalism | Internal conflict or broader appeal |
| Examples of factionalism | Progressive vs. moderate Democrats; conservative splits in GOP |
| Trump's impact on Republican Party | Shift toward nationalism and populism |
| Trump and polarization | Increased ideological division and volatility |
| Trump and party divisions | Tension between traditional conservatives and Trump supporters |
| Effect of technology on parties | Transformed campaigning, fundraising, and mobilization |
| Big data analytics | Used to target and persuade voters |
| Social media use | Direct communication, fundraising, mobilization |
| Digital fundraising | Online platforms allow small‑donor contributions |
| Challenges of new technology | Misinformation, echo chambers, polarization |
| Obama campaigns | Pioneered data‑driven digital campaigning |
| Trump campaign | Used social media for direct voter engagement |
| Pew political typology | Categorizes voters by beliefs rather than party labels |
| Faith and Flag Conservatives | Highly religious, patriotic conservatives |
| Populist Right | Anti‑elite, economic nationalist, anti‑immigration |
| Moderate Republicans | Centrist, pragmatic Republicans |
| Establishment Republicans | Business‑oriented, traditional GOP supporters |
| Progressive Left | Advocates major social and economic reform |
| Democratic Mainstays | Loyal Democratic voters |
| Outside Left | Progressive but critical of Democratic leadership |
| Stressed Listeners | Politically overwhelmed, less engaged voters |
| Why political parties endure | They organize elections, voters, and government |
| Why parties evolve | Technology, demographics, and polarization |
| Are parties declining? | Debate exists, but parties remain essential |
| Democracy | A system of government in which power comes from the people |
| Political participation | All ways citizens engage in politics, including voting, campaigning, and protesting |
| Elections | The process by which citizens choose government officials |
| Election legitimacy | Public belief that election outcomes are fair and valid |
| Free elections | Elections conducted without intimidation or coercion |
| Fair elections | Elections where votes are counted equally and accurately |
| Competitive elections | Elections with more than one viable candidate or party |
| Transparent elections | Elections conducted openly with public oversight |
| Election interference | Efforts to disrupt or influence elections, often by foreign or domestic actors |
| Misinformation | False or misleading information spread to influence political beliefs |
| Election integrity | Public confidence in the accuracy and fairness of elections |
| Voter access | The ease with which citizens can register and vote |
| Motor Voter Act (1993) | Law allowing voter registration at DMVs |
| Early voting | Voting that occurs before Election Day |
| Mail-in voting | Voting completed by mail rather than in person |
| Voter ID laws | Laws requiring identification to vote |
| Ballot access laws | Regulations determining who appears on election ballots |
| Political efficacy | The belief that one's political participation matters |
| Who votes | Unequal participation patterns among eligible voters |
| Education level | The strongest predictor of voter turnout |
| Income and voting | Higher-income individuals vote more frequently |
| Age and voting | Older citizens vote at higher rates than younger citizens |
| Race and voting | Turnout differences shaped by structural and social barriers |
| Gender gap | Differences in voting behavior between men and women |
| Party competition | Close elections increase voter turnout |
| Nonvoting | The choice of eligible citizens not to vote |
| Rational choice theory | The idea that people vote only if benefits outweigh costs |
| Costs of voting | Time, effort, and information required to vote |
| Benefits of voting | Civic satisfaction and influence on outcomes |
| Consequences of nonvoting | Policies reflect interests of those who vote |
| Prospective voting | Voting based on candidates' promises and future plans |
| Retrospective voting | Voting based on past performance of candidates or parties |
| Economic voting | Voting based on economic conditions |
| Party identification | A voter's psychological attachment to a political party |
| Issue voting | Voting based on policy positions |
| Candidate characteristics | Traits such as experience, personality, and integrity |
| Modern campaigns | Highly professional, expensive, and media-driven campaigns |
| Professionalization of campaigns | Use of paid consultants and experts |
| Microtargeting | Tailoring campaign messages to specific voters |
| Negative campaigning | Attacking opponents rather than promoting oneself |
| Voter fatigue | Disengagement caused by frequent or complex elections |
| Primary election | State-run election to choose party nominees |
| Closed primary | Only registered party members may vote |
| Open primary | Any registered voter may choose a party's primary |
| Caucus | Party-run meetings to select nominees |
| Frontloading | States holding early primaries to gain influence |
| General election | Election that determines who holds office |
| Incumbent advantage | Benefits current officeholders have in elections |
| Party convention | Meeting where parties officially nominate candidates |
| Party platform | Statement of party principles and goals |
| Swing state | State with closely divided party support |
| Electoral College | System used to elect the U.S. president |
| Electors | Individuals who cast electoral votes |
| Winner-take-all | System where the candidate with most votes wins all electors |
| 270 electoral votes | Number needed to win the presidency |
| Pros of Electoral College | Preserves federalism and encourages coalitions |
| Cons of Electoral College | Candidate can win without popular vote |
| Direct democracy | Citizens directly vote on laws and policies |
| Initiative | Process allowing citizens to propose laws |
| Referendum | Voter approval or rejection of laws |
| Recall | Election to remove an official before term ends |
| Campaign finance | Raising and spending money to influence elections |
| Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA) | Law regulating campaign contributions and disclosure |
| Federal Election Commission (FEC) | Agency enforcing campaign finance laws |
| Buckley v. Valeo (1976) | Ruling that money is a form of political speech |
| Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (2002) | Law banning party soft money |
| Soft money | Unregulated donations to political parties |
| PAC | Political Action Committee that donates within limits |
| Connected PAC | PAC linked to a corporation or labor union |
| Nonconnected PAC | PAC not formally affiliated with an organization |
| Super PAC | Independent committee with unlimited fundraising and spending |
| Independent expenditures | Spending not coordinated with candidates |
| Citizens United v. FEC (2010) | Ruling allowing unlimited independent spending |
| Dark money | Political spending from undisclosed donors |
| Money in politics | Increases campaign influence and inequality |
| Effects of money | Favors wealthy donors and reduces public trust |
| Key democratic issue | Unequal participation weakens democracy |
| Ultimate takeaway | Who participates shapes who governs |
| Media | The various technologies used to transmit political information to the public |
| Role of the media in democracy | Connects citizens to government by informing, analyzing, and holding officials accountable |
| Public opinion | Aggregate views of the public on political issues |
| Agenda-setting | The process by which the media influences which issues the public thinks are important |
| Framing | The way media presents political information to shape interpretation |
| Watchdog journalism | Media role of monitoring and exposing government corruption or abuse |
| Political socialization | Process by which people form political attitudes and values |
| Media trust | Public confidence in news organizations and reporting |
| Media bias | Perceived or real favoritism in news coverage toward a political viewpoint |
| Yellow journalism | Sensational reporting that exaggerates or distorts news for attention |
| Partisan press | Media outlets openly aligned with political parties or ideologies |
| Ideological media | News sources that cater to specific political viewpoints |
| Selective exposure | Choosing media that reinforces existing beliefs |
| Echo chamber | A media environment where individuals are exposed only to viewpoints they agree with |
| Public agenda | Issues the public considers most important |
| Issue salience | Level of importance the public assigns to political issues |
| Interpretive journalism | Media explaining and analyzing events rather than just reporting facts |
| Early American press | Highly partisan newspapers tied to political parties |
| Objectivity in journalism | Effort to report news in a neutral, balanced manner |
| Modern media polarization | Increased ideological divisions in modern media outlets |
| Radio as political media | First mass medium allowing leaders to directly reach citizens |
| Fireside chats | FDR's radio addresses that built public trust in government |
| Impact of radio | Personalized political communication and nationalized messages |
| Television as political media | Medium that emphasized visuals, image, and presentation |
| Televised debates | Political debates broadcast on TV that influence voter perception |
| Candidate-centered campaigns | Campaigns focused on individuals rather than parties |
| Sound bite | Short, catchy media quote designed for easy consumption |
| Media technology | Tools such as radio, TV, and the internet that shape political communication |
| Campaign costs | Rising expenses due to advertising and media reliance |
| Media consolidation | Fewer companies owning more media outlets |
| Causes of media consolidation | Deregulation, economic pressure, mergers |
| Effects of media consolidation | Fewer viewpoints and reduced local coverage |
| Audience fragmentation | Splitting of audiences across many media platforms |
| Incidental exposure | Encountering political information unintentionally |
| Information overload | Excessive information that overwhelms audiences |
| Traditional media | Newspapers and broadcast television |
| Modern media framework | Digital, on-demand, algorithm-driven news sources |
| Algorithmic filtering | Platforms show content based on user behavior |
| How Americans get political information | TV, online news, social media, podcasts, and digital platforms |
| Age differences in media use | Younger people prefer digital; older people prefer TV and print |
| FCC | Federal Communications Commission that regulates broadcast media |
| Why broadcast media is regulated | Limited frequencies and public interest concerns |
| Print media regulation | Print media is not regulated due to First Amendment protections |
| Arguments for media regulation | Prevents monopolies and protects public interest |
| Arguments against media regulation | Risks government censorship and free speech violations |
| Democratic benefits of media | Greater access to information and participation |
| Democratic problems of modern media | Misinformation, polarization, declining trust |
| Misinformation | False or misleading information spread through media |
| Key media trend | Technology continually reshapes democracy |
| Overall takeaway | The media strongly influences political opinion and participation |
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