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Unit 3 All Concepts
Control and Coordination Study Guide
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Soma (cell body) | The life support of the neuron, containing the nucleus and most organelles |
| Dendrites | The main receptor of signals on the neuron that extend from the cell body, also known as the input region |
| Axon | The generator and transmitter of nerve impulses on the neuron that extend from the cell body, also known as the conducting region |
| Ganglion | Collection of nerve cell bodies located throughout the human body (not the brain or spinal cord) |
| Nerve | Bundles of axons that extend from the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body |
| Axon Terminal | The end of the axon that releases neurotransmitters at a synapse when a nerve impulse is received, also known as the secretory region |
| Myelin Sheath | Covering on long axons (nerve fibers) that protects and electrically insulates them to increase the speed of nerve impulse transmission |
| Nodes of Ranvier | Unmyelinated gaps in the myelin sheath that aid in increasing the velocity of nerve signal conduction |
| Neurons | Nerve cells that respond to stimuli by conducting impulses to transmit signals |
| Neuroglia | Glial cells - supportive cells that provides nutrients, insulin, and help with signal transmission. 99% of nervous tissue. |
| Motor Neurons | Transmit information from central nervous system to the rest of the body (efferent neurons) |
| Interneurons | Housed in the central nervous system and transmit information between the sensory and motor neurons (association neurons) |
| Resting Membrane Potential | The voltage that exists across the plasma membrane during the resting state of an excitable cell, typically between -50 to -90 mV |
| Graded Potential | A short-lived, localized change in the membrane potential that can vary in strength, usually caused by a movement of a few ions |
| Threshold | When enough ions start crossing the membrane that depolarization reaches the point of generating an action |
| Action Potential | A change in the membrane potential of a cell that is big enough to conduct a nerve impulse |
| Nerve impulse | A self-propagating wave of depolarization |
| Depolarization | A change in the membrane potential resulting in less negative charge inside of the cell |
| Repolarization | A change in the membrane potential where the cell returns to being more negative on the inside |
| Hyperpolarization | When the cell gets even more negative in charge on the inside before returning to its resting state, a refractory period |
| Meninges | Layers of tissue that surround the brain and cushion it from injury |
| Ventricle | Hollow fluid-filled cavities within the brain that contain the choroid plexus, which makes cerebrospinal fluid (that protects the brain and spinal cord) |
| Cerebrum | The largest part of the brain, made of the left and right hemispheres and divided into 4 lobes. Key for learning, speech, emotion, reasoning, vision, hearing, and fine movements |
| Cerebellum | The part of the brain under the cerebrum that is most involved in producing smooth and coordinated skeletal muscle activity. Key for maintaining posture, balance, and coordination of subconscious movements. |
| Brain Stem | The medulla oblongata, midbrain, and pons in the brain, responsible for relaying information between the rest of the brain and the spinal cord and coordinates many automatic movements. |
| Neurotransmitter | Chemical messenger released by a neuron that stimulates or inhibits the neurons or effector cells it signals |
| Hormone | Chemical messengers secreted by cells into extracellular fluids that travel through the blood to regulate cell functions |
| Mechanoreceptor | Sensory nerve receptor that is activated by a mechanical force stimulus (such as vibration, pressure, stretch, or touch) |
| Thermoreceptor | Sensory nerve receptor that is activated by a change in temperature stimulus |
| Photoreceptor | Sensory nerve receptor that is activated by a light stimulus |
| Chemoreceptor | Sensory nerve receptor that is activated by a chemical stimulus |
| Nociceptor | Sensory nerve receptor that is activated by a pain stimulus |
| Reflex | An automatic reaction to a stimulus |
| Synapse | The junction between two neurons that mediates the transfer of a signal from the presynaptic neuron to the postsynaptic neuron or an effector cell |
| Overall functions of the nervous system and summarize the overall process used to accomplish these functions. | Ultimate control center and overseer of all communication in the body Accomplished via sensory input, integration (processing stimuli and making decisions), and motor output. |
| Structural Classificiation | Based on the number of processes (extensions from the cell body) |
| Multipolar | 3 or more processes (1 axon and 2 or more dendrites) |
| Bipolar | 2 processes (1 axon and 1 dendrite on the opposite end of the cell) |
| Unipolar | 1 process, dividing from the cell body like a T |
| Functional Classification | Based on the way an impulse travels through a neuron |
| Sensory Neuron | (AFFERENT) infomation from sensory receptors to the CNS |
| Motor Neuron | (EFFERENT) information from CNS to the rest of the body |
| Interneurons | Transmit infomaiton between sensory and motor neurons that are housed in the CNS |
| How a signal is transmitted from one neuron to another | A nerve impulse is sent from the axon of one neuron and received by the dendrites of another. |
| What happens at the synapse when a signal is transmitted from 1 neuron to another | A signal must travel through the synaptic cleft between the two cells. Electrical synapses can transmit electrical signals (gap junctions). Mostly a chemical synapses that convert electrical signals to neurotransmitters that diffuse through the synapse. |
| How to increase strength between signals transmitted from one neuron to another | The strength of the signal can be increased by increasing the frequency of action potentials. |
| Role of protein channels in the conduction of nerve impulses | Protein channels allow specific ions to cross the membrane. This allows cells to concentrate ions on the inside instead of the outside to change membrane potential. This is how neurons sens electronic signals. |
| Na/K pumps in protein channels | The Na/K pump moves 3 Na out of the senn and 2 K into the cell to maintain a resting membrane protential of -70 mV |
| Voltage-Gated Channel | Opens and closes in response to changes in the membrane potential |
| Ligand-Gates Channel | Only opens when a specific chemical (ligand) like a neurotransmitter binds to the channel |
| Mechanically-Gated Channel | Open if the membrane is stretched or physically deformed |
| Resting State | Neuron is more negative inside the cell than outside in the extracellular space. |
| Depolarization | Change within the cell that results in less negative charge inside the cell. |
| Repolarization | A change in the membrane potential where the cell returns to being more negative inside |
| Hyperpolarization | (refractory period) When the cell gets even more negative in charge before returning to its resting state. |
| Excitatory Neurotransmitters | Open ion channels in the cell membrane and depolarize the postsynaptic neuron, causing an action potential to be passed along |
| Inhibitory Neurotransmitters | Can hyperpolarize the postsynaptic neuron so it can’t send on the action potential, and thus the message is not passed on. |
| CNS | Brain and spinal cord - Integration and control center |
| PNS | Spinal and cranial nerves - Communication center between the CNS and the rest of the body |
| Sensory Division | AFFERENT - sensory nerve fibers - receives sensory stimuli to send back to the brain to be processed |
| Motor Division | EFFERENT - motor nerve fibers - sends out information from brain to effector organs (like muscles and glands) to initiate a response (like contraction or secretion) |
| Somatic | Somatic motor nerve fibers Conducts impulses from the CNS to skeletal muscles Controls voluntary movements |
| Autonomic | Visceral motor nerve fibers Conducts impulses from the CNS to smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, and glands Controls involuntary movements |
| Sympathetic | "Fight or flight” division Amps up/excites the body to get it what it needs right now, and all of a sudden Sends 1 stress signal to initiate responses in multiple effector organs all at once |
| Parasympathetic | “Rest and digest” division Maintains our bodies and conserves energy for later Only communicates to 1 effector organ at a time Does the opposite of everything the sympathetic does |
| Innate (intrinsic) Reflex | A rapid, predictable motor response to a startling stimulus |
| Learned (acquired) Reflex | A response resulting from practice, repetition, or experience |
| Sclera | The white part of the eye that serves as an anchoring site for extrinsic eye muscles; part of the eye’s fibrous outermost layer |
| Cornea | The window that lets light into the eye; part of the eye’s fibrous outermost layer |
| Choroid | Supplies all the layers of the eye with blood; part of the eye’s vascular middle layer |
| Ciliary body | Ring of muscle tissue around the lens in the eye |
| Iris | Ring of smooth muscle between the cornea and lens that contracts and expands to change the size of the pupil; the colored part of the eye |
| Pupil | Opening in the center of the iris that allows light into the eye |
| Suspensory ligament | A halo of fibers encircling and holding up the lens of the eye |
| Retina | The inner layer of the eye that contains the photoreceptors (rods and cones) |
| Optic Nerve | The nerve that transmits visual information from the retina to the brain |
| Fovea Centralis | Small pit in the eye, packed with cones, that gives us our sharpest and clearest vision |
| Optic Disc | Where the optic nerve exits the eye |
| Rods | Photoreceptors in the retina that register black and white |
| Cones | Photoreceptors in the retina that detect fine details and color |
| Lens | The convex transparent disc that focuses the light that is allowed in and projects it onto the retina in the inner layer |
| Vitreous Humor | The clear GEL that fills the posterior segment of the eye behind the lens |
| Aqueous Humor | The clear FLUID that fills the anterior segment in front of the lens |
| Odor | The gaseous molecules we smell |
| Olfactory epithelium | Specialized epithelial tissue in the roof of the nasal cavity that has olfactory sensory neurons |
| Taste buds | The sensory organ of taste, mainly located in the papillae |
| Papillae | Bumps on the tongue where taste buds are located |
| Gustatory Epithelial Cells | Taste receptor cells |
| Basal Epithelial Cells | Stem cells that make new gustatory epithelial cells |
| General process of sensory organs to use senses | Sensory receptors of sensory division of the PNS receive stimuli from the environment and then send signals to the central nervous system to be integrated before a response is sent out through the motor division of the nervous system. |
| General Senses (touch) | Use general sensory receptors in the body that are typically modified nerve endings of sensory neurons. |
| Special senses (vision, smell, taste, hearing, and balance) | Use special sensory receptor cells in sensory organs and epithelial structures. |
| Electromagnetic waves that allow us to see | Electromagnetic (light) waves enter the eye through the cornea to the pupil before getting to the millions of photoreceptors in the retina that will convert them to action potentials that will travel along the optic nerve to the brain. |
| Eyebrows | Keep sweat and sunlight out of the eyes |
| Eyelids and Lashes | Trigger reflexive blinking to keep the eyes moist |
| Lacrimal Apparatus | A gland that produces and secretes tears and ducts to drain the secretions |
| Fibrous layer | Outermost layer Mainly the sclera that anchors the extrinsic eye muscles and cornea that allows light in |
| Vascular layer | Middle layer Includes the choroid that supplies all the layers with blood and the intrinsic eye muscles (the ciliary body and iris) |
| Inner layer | Retina Outer pigmented layer with cells that help to absorb light and an inner neural layer with tons of neurons and neuroglia to create pathways for light Photoreceptors (rods and cones) convert light energy 🡪 electrical energy as action potentials |
| Organization of the Eyeball | 3 layers of the wall of the eyeball (fibrous, vascular, and inner) Internally hollow with fluids that hold its shape Lens inside focuses the light and projects it onto the retina |
| Pathway and process that allow us to process smells. | Molecules under the nose and hit the olfactory epithelium. Molecules reach the olfactory sensory neurons and action potentials are send down the olfacotry nerve to the olfactory tract and to the olfactory cortext of the brain. |
| Pathway and process that allow us to process taste | Molecules enter the mouth and hit the taste buds in our papillae where they reach the gustatory epithelial cells. From there, action potentials are sent to signal the gustatory cortex of the brain. |
| Pathway that a sound wave travels through the ear so we can hear | Sound waves travel through the outer ear 🡪 ear canal 🡪 ear drum 🡪 middle ear bones 🡪 cochlea 🡪 basilar membrane 🡪 hair cells 🡪 nerve cells 🡪 brain |
| Outer Ear | Pinna and external acoustic meatus Catch sound waves and pass them deeper into the ear through the auditory canal |
| Middle ear | Auditory ossicles (malleus, incus, and stapes) Amplify sound waves to make them stronger for when they get to the inner ear |
| Inner ear | Bony and membranous labyrinth Turn physical vibrations into electrical impulses to travel to brain |
| Touch | Mechanical 🡪 electrical |
| Vision | Electromagnetic (light) 🡪 electrical |
| Smell | Chemical 🡪 electrical |
| Taste | Chemical 🡪 electrical |
| Hearing | Sound 🡪 mechanical 🡪 electrical |
| Balance | Mechanical 🡪 electrical |
| Exocrine | Externally secreting structures that release nonhormonal substances, like sweat and saliva, through ducts to the body’s surface |
| Endocrine | Internally secreting ductless structures that release hormones into surrounding tissue fluid, like blood |
| Humoral Stimuli | Hormone release caused by altered levels of critical ions or nutrients. Ex Low [Ca+2] in capillary blood stimulates the parathyroid gland to secrete PTH to increase blood [Ca+2] |
| Neural Stimuli | Hormone release caused by neural input. Ex Preganglionic sympathetic fibers send AP to adrenal gland to stimulate secretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine |
| Hormonal Stimuli | Hormone release caused by another hormone. Ex Hormones secreted by hypothalamus stimulate the anterior pituitary gland to secrete hormones to stimulate other glands |
| Permissiveness | When a hormone can’t do its job fully without another hormone present. Ex Reproductive hormones can’t fully do their jobs until thyroid hormones have stimulated reproductive development |
| Synergism | When more than one hormone produces the same effects at the target cell, causing an amplified combined effect. Ex Glucagon and epinephrine can cause the liver to release glucose to the blood, releasing increased levels when working at the same time. |
| Antagonism | When one hormone opposes the action of another. Ex Insulin lowers blood glucose and glucagon raises them, thus they act in opposition to one another. |
| Overall function of the endocrine system | Interact with the nervous system to coordinate and control the body’s activities using hormones. Ex. reproduction, growth and development, blood nutrient balance, cellular metabolism, and mobilizing the body's defenses for the immune system. |
| Nervous System | Uses APs and neurotransmitters Immediate responses Short-term responses Acts at specific locations the axon brings signals to (short distance) |
| Endocrine System | Uses hormones released in blood Delayed responses Long-term responses Acts at target locations that hormones travel to via blood (long distance) |
| Factors that affect a target cell's ability to reveice a hormone and affect a response | Presence of the specific receptors needed for the hormone to bind Blood levels of the hormone Relative numbers of receptors for the particular hormone Strength (affinity) of the binding between the hormone and the receptor |
| Chemical structure of a hormone affects it | The chemical structure of a hormone affects its solubility in water which then affects how it is transported in the blood, how long it lasts before degradation, and what receptors can receive it. |
| Amino Acid Based Hormones | The majority of hormones; derived from amino acids and are water soluble (except for the thyroid hormone) |
| Steroid Hormones | Derived from cholesterol and are lipid soluble |
| Occipital Lobe | Important for vision and audio information and is located at the back of the brain |
| Frontal Lobe | Important for thinking and planning (BITE OF 87 MATPAT VIDEO) |
| Temporal Lobe | Important for hearing and language |
| Parental Lobe | Important for touch and spacial awareness |
| Spinal Cord | Connects the brain stem from the PNS and carries messages up and down the body. |
| Pineal Gland | Located deep in the brain, which helps regulate sleep cycles by producing melatonin. |
| Limbic System | Important for emotions, memories, and motivation. |
| Thalamus | Relay sensory information to the brain's cortex |
| Hypothalamus | Produces hormones and sends it to the anterior pituitary gland to relay information to organs. Main function is to maintain homeostasis. |
| Corpus Callosum | Connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain together |
| Anterior Pituitary Gland | Produces and regulates the activiesi of other glands (with orders from the hypothalamus). Aka "Master Gland". Regulates growth, metabolism, thyround gland, adrenal gland, ovaries, tesies, and prolactin. |
| Posterior Pituitary Gland | Storage area for Hormones. Neural tissues that reviews and releases hormones. |
| Thyroid Gland | Creates T3 & T4 hormones. Regulates blood, metaolic rate, body heat, growth, and blood pressure. |
| Parathyroid Gland | 4 tiny glands posterior to the thyroid gland. Controls calcium balance in blood, muscle contractions, nerve signaling transmissions, blood clotting, activation Vit D, kidneys, skeleton, and intestines. |
| Adrenal Glands | 2 types of glands: Adrenal Cortex and Adrenal Medula. |
| Adrenal Cortex | Makes 24 steriod hormones (corticosteroids) Controls water and minerals, energy metabolism, response to stress, increasing blood sugar levels, and sex hormones. |
| Adrenal Medula | Reinforces and prolong fight lor flight response. Increases blood sugar levels, heart rate, conductivity and relaxation of smooth muscles. |
| Pancreas | Excess glucose concerts to fat. Releases glucagon (alpha cells) to raise blood sugar levels. Releases insulin (beta cells) to lower blood sugar levels. |
| Ovaries (Gondas) | The female reproducive organ. Releases estrogen which develops female sex characteristics. Releases profesterone, which causes uterin lining to thicken and prepares the beasts for lactation. |
| Testes (Gondas) | Produces male sex cells. Releases testosterone to stimulate sex drive, produce sex characteristics (body hair), regulate bone mass, fat, metabolism, muscle mass, and strength. |
| Placenta | Sustains fetus and secretes various hormones throughout pregnancy. Releases estrogen, progesterone, human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), and relaxin. |
| Glutamate | Excitatory. Forms memories. Is the primary excitatory transmitter. Plays key role in learning |
| GABA | Inhibitory. Controls anxiety and vision.Is the primary inhibitory transmitter in the vertebrate brain. |
| Glycine | Inhibitory. Main inhibitor transmitter in the vertebrate spinal cord. Controls sensory funciton. |
| Acetylcholine | Both excitatory and inhibitor. Works in teh automatic nervous system and sensory neurons. Controls muscle contractions and REM sleep cycle. |
| Norepinephrine | Both excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitter. Stimules "fight or flight" response. Forms memories,and emotions, and incrases heart rate/blood pressure. |
| Dopamine | Inhibitory. Reward center. Communicaiton between nerves. |
| Serotonin | Inhibitory. Controls mood, emotion, perception, and sex drive. |
| Endorphins | Inhibitory. Controls pleasure, pain relief, and stress. |
| Alcohol | Initiates GABA and glutamate hormones. Gets hit with a double sedative punch. Memory formatiom and decision making decreases while impulse control increases. |
| Cocaine | Releases dopamine hormone. Dopamine cannot get out of the synapsic cleft and the body becomes overstimulated. The body fidgets and cannot be still. |
| Ecstasy | Releases serotonin. Serotonin gets trapped inside the synpatic cleft and overstimulates the body. Affects mood, sleep, [erception, and appetite. Interacts with with the reward pathway. |
| Heroin | Releases dopamine. Dopamine floods the synapes and produces an immediate feeling of sedation and well-being. The body cannot feel pain, stress, or emotional attatchments. |
| LSD | Releases serotonin (inhibitory &/or excitory). Makes people feel awake and evole a startle response to unexpected stimuli. |
| Marijuana | Releases dopamine. Synapse are sealed, and dopamin squirts inside of it. Makes the body feel relaxed and calm. Encourages slow movement and perception. |
| Methamphetamine | Releases dopamine. Dopamine is pumped into the synapse, overstimulating the cell. The body feels intese pleasure and is exhilarated. |
| Sensory Input | Receives the stimuli through millions of sensory receptors thoughout the body. |
| Integration | Processes the input stimuli and decides what should be done. |
| Motor Output | Activiates effector organs to cause a response. |
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