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ANTR 350: 1
Fundamentals of anatomy, ANTR 350 at MSU
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Epithelial Tissue | found lining the walls of open tubes, provides secretory (outward) and absorptive (inwards) surface |
| Connective tissue | collection of fibers, cells, and ground substances that provide support for other tissues; ground substance + protein fibers + extracellular matrix (tensile strength) |
| Nervous tissue | composed of neurons, provides structure for long-distance communication in the body by transmitting electrical signals from the nervous system (glia cells) |
| Muscle tissue | generates mechanical force to allow movement of the body or movement of contents in hollow organs |
| Epithelial tissue functions | forms glands, lines tubes and surfaces for protection |
| 3 types of muscle tissue | cardiac, smooth, skeletal |
| Tissue | groups of cells that perform a common or related function |
| Organ | assembled from tissues that're bundled together and folded into a 3D shape |
| Organ system | organs work together to serve a larger function for the body |
| Anatomical position | Standing upright (erect), eyes are forward, upper limbs are hanging by sides of the torso (elbows, wrists, and fingers are extended, forearms are supinated so palms face forwards), lower limbs extended (knees straight, feet flat, toes forward) |
| Supine | patient lying on their back |
| Prone | patient lying face down on exam table |
| Cephalic (anatomical position) | head |
| Buccal (anatomical position) | cheek area |
| Otic (anatomical position) | auricular, ear |
| Mental (anatomical position) | chin |
| Cervical (anatomical position) | neck |
| Acromial (anatomical position) | deltoid, shoulder region |
| Axillary (anatomical position) | armpit |
| Brachial (anatomical position) | arm, portion of limb between shoulder and elbow |
| Antebrachial (anatomical position) | portion of upper limb between the elbow and wrist |
| Palmar (anatomical position) | palm of hand (front) |
| Pollex (anatomical position) | thumb |
| Mammary (anatomical position) | pectoral, location of breast tissue and pectoral muscles |
| Sternal (anatomical position) | center of chest overlying the breastbone (sternum) |
| Abdominal (anatomical position) | abdomen, stomach portion of torso between bottom rib cage and top of pelvis |
| Pelvic (anatomical position) | pelvis |
| Inguinal (anatomical position) | refers to junction between the torso and thigh (groin) |
| Femoral (anatomical position) | thigh, portion of lower limb between hip and knee |
| Crural (anatomical position) | leg, portion of lower limb between knee and ankle |
| Pedal (anatomical position) | pes, foot |
| Hallux (anatomical position) | great/big toe |
| Lumbar (anatomical position) | lower back (bottom of rib cage and top of pelvis) |
| Gluteal (anatomical position) | buttocks |
| Popliteal (anatomical position) | posterior surface (back) of knee |
| Sural (anatomical position) | posterior surface (back) of leg (calf) |
| Plantar (anatomical position) | sole (bottom) of foot |
| Anterior/ventral (spatial orientation) | towards or located on the front surface of the body (sternum is BLANK to the vertebral column) |
| Posterior/dorsal (spatial orientation) | towards or located on the back surface of the body (heart is BLANK to the sternum) |
| Superior/cranial (spatial orientation) | closer to or moving towards the head (lungs are BLANK to the stomach) |
| Inferior/caudal (spatial orientation) | closer or moving towards the feet (pelvis is BLANK to the abdomen) |
| Medial (spatial orientation) | closer or moving towards midline, which divides the body in equal left and right halves (nose is BLANK to the ears) |
| Lateral (spatial orientation) | further away from the midline of the body (ears are BLANK to the nose) |
| Proximal (spatial orientation) | in the limbs, located closer to the point of attachment of the limb to the body/trunk (knee is BLANK to the ankle) |
| Distal (spatial orientation) | in the limbs, located further from the point of attachment of the limb to the trunk/body (fingers are BLANK to the elbows) |
| Superficial (spatial orientation) | located closer to the external surface of the body (skin is BLANK to muscle and bones) |
| Deep (spatial orientation) | located farther away from the external surface of the body (bones are BLANK to the skin) |
| Sagittal (anatomical plane) | lengthwise cut that divides the body into right and left sections at the midline or lateral to the midline |
| Frontal/coronal (anatomical plane) | runs parallel to the long axis of the body but divides body into posterior and anterior |
| Transverse/horizontal (anatomical plane) | divides body into upper/superior and lower/inferior sections like a belt |
| Oblique (anatomical plane) | planes that pass through the body at an angle |
| Midsagittal (anatomical plane) | divides into equal right and left halves |
| Parasagittal (anatomical plane) | divides the body into unequal right and left halves, plane is not at midline |
| Abdominal quadrants (4) | right upper, right lower, left upper, left lower |
| Abdominal regions (9) | right hypochondriac, epigastric, left hypochondriac, right lumbar, umbilical, left lumbar, right iliac, hypogastric, left iliac |
| Thoracic Cavity- Pericardial (body cavity) | created by the reflections of the pericardium within the mediastinum located between the heart and the neighboring pleura of the pulmonary cavity |
| Thoracic Cavity- Pleural (body cavity) | created by reflections of the pleura within the pulmonary cavity |
| Thoracic Cavity- Superior Mediastinum (body cavity) | extends from base of the neck to the diaphragm between the right and left lungs and contains the heart (serous membrane, pericardium) and the esophagus, trachea, thymus gland, major blood vessels, nerves, lymphatic structures |
| Diaphragm (body cavity) | dome-shaped muscular partition separating the thorax from the abdomen, major role in breathing |
| Abdominal Cavity (body cavity) | contains stomach, liver, kidney, appendix, gall bladder, large intestine, small intestine (drapes down into pelvic cavity) |
| Pelvic Cavity (body cavity) | uterus and bladder; pelvic brim is what marks the "border" between the pelvic and abdominal cavities since there is no actual divide |
| Posterior/dorsal Cavity- Cranial (body cavity) | located inside the skull and contains the brain |
| Posterior/dorsal Cavity- Spinal (body cavity) | located within the vertebral column and contains the spinal cord |
| Pericardium | Serous membrane of the heart |
| Pleura | Serous membrane of the lungs |
| Peritoneum | Serous membrane of the digestive organs |
| Functions of the skeletal system | encasement and protection, support and movement, hemopoiesis (red blood cell production), mineral and energy storage (calcification and yellow bone marrow) |
| Flat (bone types) | thin, broad, commonly curved; bones of the cranial vault, scapula, sternum, ribs |
| Irregular (bone types) | bones that don't easily fit into other shape classifications; vertebrae, ethmoid bone, sphenoid bone, hip bones (coxae) |
| Sesamoid (bone types) | found within tendons; patella |
| Short (bone types) | equally long and wide, forming cube shapes; carpals and tarsals |
| Long (bone types) | longer than they are wide, bone shape matters (not size); phalanges (fingers and toes), humerus, femur |
| Diaphysis (bone anatomy) | long tubular portion of long bone |
| Epiphysis (bone anatomy) | wider region at either end of the bone |
| Periosteum (bone anatomy) | covers the entire bone except for areas at the hip and knee joints; extremely vascular (full of blood vessels) and allows blood and nutrients to enter the long bone |
| Medullary Cavity (bone anatomy) | hollow, cylindrical space in the diaphysis of long bones (in adults, filled with yellow marrow) |
| Endosteum (bone anatomy) | cells lining the medullary cavity of long bones |
| Compact bone (bone anatomy) | cortical bone; surrounds medullary cavities, around the perimeter of diaphysis using osteons to form strong outer walls |
| Spongy bone (bone anatomy) | trabecular bone; found deep in compact bone and has a sponge/honeycomb-like appearance, pockets are filled with red bone marrow; long bone- proximal and distal epiphyses |
| Osteoprogenitor cells | stem cells derived from mesenchyme, can mature into osteoblasts (found in the periosteum) |
| Osteoblasts | build bone by secreting osteoid (later calcifies) |
| Osteocytes | mature osteoblasts (trapped in bone) that maintain bone health; secrete osteoid and build new bone, monitor bone health |
| Osteoclasts | bone reabsorption, responsible for bone breakdown, large |
| Steps to Ossification | Formation of a hematoma -> soft (fibrocartilaginous) callus development -> hard (bony) callus development -> bone remodeling |
| Primary Ossification Center | first site within a developing bone where bone formation begins; in long bones, located in the diaphysis (shaft) |
| Secondary Ossification Center | region of bone growth that develops after primary ossification center; occurs in epiphysis (ends) of long bones |
| Endochondral Ossification | process by which bone tissue is formed from a pre-existing cartilage template |
| Intramembranous Ossification | process that forms flat bones in the body, like the skull and clavicle, directly from mesenchyme connective tissue |
| Bony Depressions | Fossa, Groove, Sulcus |
| Bony Opening | Canal, Fissure, Foramen |
| Bony Projection | Process, Tubercle, Crest, Trochanter, Spine, Line, Epicondyle, Tuberosity |
| Articulating Surface | Head, Condyle, Facet |
| Articulation | joint; meeting place of 2 or more bones |
| Functional Classification | classifies joints by the amount of movement allowed; synarthrosis, amphiarthrosis, diarthrosis |
| Structural Classification | classifies joints by the type of connective tissues connecting the bones; fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial |
| Fibrous (structural) | connective tissue fibers (collagen) connects bones, sutures, syndesmosis |
| Cartilaginous (structural) | bones are connected by either hyaline or fibrocartilage; synchondrosis, and symphysis |
| Synovial (structural) | freely moveable joints that allow for a wide range of motion between bones, contain: articular cartilage, joint capsule, synovial fluid, ligaments |
| Synarthrosis (functional) | immoveable joints; cranial sutures, dentoalveolar joints, epiphyseal plate, 1st sternocostal joint |
| Amphiarthrosis (functional) | slightly moveable joints; interosseous membranes between radius/ulna, tibia/fibula, distal tibiofibular joint, intervertebral disc, pubic symphysis joints |
| Diarthrosis (functional) | freely moveable joints; shoulder, elbow, wrist, hip, knee |
| Suture (fibrous) | skull; connect the membranous bones of the skull, no movement |
| Syndesmosis (fibrous) | interosseous ligament between the fibula and tibia; bones connected by the interosseous ligament, slight movement |
| Gomphosis (fibrous) | tooth being held into the bone socket via the periodontal ligament; teeth articulate with the maxillary and mandibular via gomphosis sockets -> dentoalveolar joints (teeth joints) immoveable (synarthroses) |
| Synchondroses (cartilaginous) | primary cartilaginous joint, unites bones with hyaline cartilage; like joint between 1st rib and sternum |
| Symphyses (cartilaginous) | secondary cartilaginous joint, unites the bones with a disc of fibrocartilage; like intervertebral disc joints |
| Ligament (synovial) | strong bands of connective tissue that support synovial joints by connecting bones and limiting movement |
| Joint Capsule (synovial) | outer layer (dense fibrous connective tissue) continuous with periosteum |
| Synovial membrane (synovial) | the soft connective tissue lining of the joint capsule; composed of loss connective tissue (blood and lymphatic vessels within a collagen matrix) |
| Joint Cavity (synovial) | formed by enclosing the articulating bones with a joint capsule |
| Articular Cartilage (synovial) | a smooth, white tissue that covers the ends of bones in joints |
| Synovial Fluid (synovial) | biological lubricant by reducing friction in moving joints |
| Hinge (synovial) | uniaxial, an articulation between a concave surface of one bone with a convex surface of another bone; ulnohumeral joint (joint of elbow between trochlear notch of ulna and trochlea of the humerus), knee, phalange |
| Pivot (synovial) | uniaxial, rotate about a longitudinal axis and feature an articular surface shaped like a cylinder, which rotates within a ring formed of bone and ligament; radioulnar joint, atlanto-axial joint |
| Ball and Socket (synovial) | triaxial, feature a spherical surface (humeral and femoral heads) articulating with a cup-shaped socket; shoulder and hip |
| Plane/gliding (synovial) | nonaxial, no identifiable axis of rotation, flat or nearly flat articular facets on vertebral arches, between carpals and tarsals, and between ribs and vertebrae |
| Abduction | frontal plane, movement away from the midline (median, midsagittal plane) |
| Adduction | frontal plane, movement towards the midline (median, midsagittal plane) |
| Flexion | sagittal plane, typically decreases the joint angle between the moving segment and its proximal segment |
| Extension | sagittal plane, typically increases joint angle |
| Lateral Flexion | axial skeleton moves medially or laterally (ex: tilting head/trunk left or right, moving vertebral column in a frontal plane and midline of the body moves with us) |
| Circumduction | frontal and sagittal planes, outlining a cone-like shape; combines abduction and adduction |
| Rotation | twisting movement around an axis; shaking head no, shoulder and hip circles |
| Supination | radius and ulna are uncrossed, palm facing anterior |
| Pronation | turning palm posteriorly involves crossing ulna and radius |
| Dorsiflexion | moves the dorsum of the foot from anatomical positions towards the leg |
| Plantarflexion | the equivalent of extension, moves the plantar surface (sole) of the foot in an inferior direction, as in standing on the toes |
| Inversion | moves the plantar surface (sole) of the foot medially (inwards) |
| Eversion | moves the plantar surface (sole) of the foot laterally (outwards) |
| Opposition | special movement of the hand in which the thumb contracts any of the fingers (typically the 2nd), "pincer grasp"; allows for writing, eating with utensils, fine motor functions |
| Protraction | temporomandibular (jaw) and scapulothoracic joints, occurs in transverse plane, movement in the anterior direction |
| Retraction | temporomandibular (jaw) and scapulothoracic joints, occurs in transverse plane, movement in the posterior direction |
| Elevation | moves upwards (superiorly); closes jaw |
| Depression | moves downwards (inferiorly); opens jaw |
| Visual Inspection | looking at patient, noting facial expressions (normal or not), abnormalities in gait, color of skin/eyes, muscle tone, abnormal bulges, etc. |
| Palpitation | feeling through the skin using pressure and the sense of touch; use sense of touch and varying amounts if pressure to feel organs of the abdomen and pelvis during the exam to see if organs are the normal size |
| Auscultation | using a stethoscope to listen to the sounds an organ makes; listen to heart and lungs to listen for murmurs and abnormal lung sounds |
| Percussion | using fingers to tap on specific locations to listen to the sounds this makes and feel vibrations; tapping abdomen to check fluid or abnormally sized organs |
| Excitability | ability of muscle cells to respond to chemical or electrical signals. Skeletal muscle tissue receives a signal from the nervous system via a neurotransmitter, while cardiac and smooth muscle have pacemaker cells and can respond to hormones as well |
| Contractility | stimulated muscle cells shorten (contract) to produce tension. Specifically when skeletal muscle shortens, it pulls on tendons that are inserted into the bones, which produces movement |
| Elasticity | muscle cells return to their original length, either when tension is removed (contraction ends) or after being stretched. Like rubber band, muscle tissues can stretch and then return to their original length |
| Extensibility | the capacity of muscle to stretch to the normal resting length and beyond after contracting. Muscle length shortens during contraction, but due to extensibility of the muscle, the length returns to normal resting length after the contraction is finished |
| Skeletal Muscle | voluntary |
| Cardiac Muscle | involuntary, striated |
| Smooth Muscle | involuntary, unstriated |
| Vena comitans | a paired vein that runs alongside an artery, often in the limbs and deeper parts of the body |
| Tendon | connect muscle to bones or other structures, can vary in shape |
| Aponeurosis | thin flat tendons such as the ones that form epicranial aponeurosis or the rectus sheath over the abdominal wall |
| Investing Fascia | Similar to packaging used to separate frozen food -> each piece is wrapped in its own individual package so that they don’t stick together into one large frozen block |
| Muscle Belly | vary in shape and size, formed by bundles of skeletal muscle fibers wrapped in different levels of connective tissue, wrapped in investing fascia (each muscle can move separately) |
| Origin (proximal attachment) | moves the least muscle contracts |
| Insertion (distal attachment) | moves the most when muscle contracts, moves toward the origin during the contraction of the muscle |
| Agonist | prime mover, muscle most directly involved in creating movement |
| Antagonist | opposing muscle group, involved in stabilizing the joint during a movement but could slow down or stop the movement |
| Synergist | muscles that stabilize the body during movement but aren't directly responsible for bringing about a movement |
| Naming Muscles: Action or Function | flexor, extensor, abductor, adductor, supinator, and pronator, additionally the sphincter or tensor |
| Naming Muscles: Body region/anatomical Direction | location of the muscle |
| Naming Muscles: Orientation of Muscle Fibers | orientation includes rectus (straight), transversus (across), oblique (at an angle) while the number of heads includes biceps (two origins), triceps (three origins), and quadriceps (four origins); ceps is related to cephalic which means head |
| Naming Muscles: Shape | trapezius (trapezoid), deltoid (triangular), serratus (saw-toothed), rhomboid (diamond-shaped), and orbicular (circular) |
| Naming Muscles: Points of Attachment | origin and insertion on the skeleton or other organs are often used (supraspinatus) |
| Naming Muscles: Size | vastus (great), magnus (big), major (bigger), maximus (biggest), minor (smaller), minimus (smallest) |
| Naming Muscles: Length | longus or longissimus (long), teres (long and round), brevis (short), and latissimus (widest) |
| Compartments: Arm (brachium) | (2) anterior (flexor) and posterior (extensor) |
| Compartments: Forearm (antebrachium) | (2) anterior (flexor) containing flexor and pronator muscles and posterior (extensor) containing supinator and extensor muscles |
| Compartments: Thigh (femoral region) | (3) anterior, posterior, medial separated by intermuscular septa |
| Compartments: Leg | (4) anterior, lateral, superficial posterior, deep posterior |
| CNS | brain and spinal cord; integrates and processes nervous information |
| PNS | cranial and spinal nerves, ganglia; carries information from the body to the CNS, receives information from the CNS to cause a response in the body |
| Nucleus | a group of neuron cell bodies grouped together in close proximity in the CNS |
| Ganglion | a group of neuron cell bodies grouped together in close proximity in the PNS |
| Nerve | a bundle of axons in the PNS |
| Afferent | sensory, information from the body traveling to the CNS (pain, touch, temperature, etc.) |
| Efferent | motor, information traveling from the CNS to the muscle tissues in the body (muscle contraction, relaxation, etc.) |
| Somatic | consciously aware; voluntary/conscious control over these structures; you can localize sensations originating in these structures (skeletal muscle, skin, joints, bones, fascia, parietal layer of serous membranes [pericardium, pleura, peritoneum]) |
| Visceral | unaware; involuntary/unconscious control over these structures; you cannot localize sensations originating in these structures (smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glands, organs, visceral layer of serous membrane [pericardium, pleura, peritoneum]) |
| Somatic Motor (efferent) | voluntary/conscious control motor output from the CNS to skeletal muscle |
| Somatic Sensory (afferent) | sensory information in which you are consciously aware; touch, pain, pressure, vibration, temperature, proprioception, vision, hearing, balance, taste, smell |
| Visceral Motor (efferent) | involuntary/unconscious motor output from the CNS to cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands |
| Visceral Sensory (afferent) | sensory information of which you are unaware from receptors in; blood vessels, organs, baroreceptors (blood pressure), chemical irritation, stretch and distension of organs |
| Neurons | nervous tissue cells, receive input from other cells, determine which parts to pass on, and send the information to other cells through action potentials |
| Glial Cells | neuroglia, support the proper function of healthy neurons and help modulate their activity, make up 90% of cells within the CNS |
| Synapse | when a nerve impulse is transmitted through the junction between the end of one axon and another cell |
| Cell Body (soma) | acts as control center of the neuron |
| Dendrite | extending projections that receive and conduct nerve impulses to the cell body |
| Axon | single long projection, extends from the cell body to carry nerve impulses to other neurons, muscle tissue, and gland cells |
| Interneuron | act as the "go-between" in between sensory and motor neurons; receives nerve impulses from sensory neurons and sends impulses to motor neurons |
| Astrocytes | most common CNS neuroglia, star-shaped, contribute to blood-brain barrier, secrete/absorb neurotransmitters in synaptic cleft, establish physical structure, glycogen storage and glycogenesis, regulate CNS, release of ATP, and repair damage of nerve cells |
| Ependymal Cells | line the ventricles of the brain and assist in production and circulation of cerebrospinal fluid, help form the choroid plexus, ciliated columnar shape, basal membrane is attached to astrocytes |
| Microglial Cells | act as macrophages by removing damaged neurons or ones with infectious agents, recognition of infectious agents and action as antigen-presenting cells, prevent inflammation within CSN by rapid removal of infectious agents, phagocytizing foreign material |
| Oligodendrocytes | provide support/insulation of axons within CNS by creating myelin sheath (1 oligodendrocyte can myelinate ~50 axons) which increases action potential conduction velocity, produces growth-inhibitory proteins that prevent injured cells from regenerating |
| Schwann | neurolemmocytes, long, flat cells that wrap along axons, forming a myelin sheath around axons in the peripheral nervous system |
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